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- 14 Expansion
14 Expansion
The following types of expansions are performed in the indicated order in five steps:
-
History Expansion
This is performed only in interactive shells. -
Alias Expansion
Aliases are expanded immediately before the command line is parsed as explained in Aliasing. -
Process Substitution
Parameter Expansion
Command Substitution
Arithmetic Expansion
Brace Expansion
These five are performed in left-to-right fashion. On each argument, any of the five steps that are needed are performed one after the other. Hence, for example, all the parts of parameter expansion are completed before command substitution is started. After these expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the characters ‘\
’,‘’
’ and ‘"
’ are removed. -
Filename Expansion
If theSH_FILE_EXPANSION
option is set, the order of expansion is modified for compatibility with sh and ksh. In that case filename expansion is performed immediately after alias expansion, preceding the set of five expansions mentioned above. -
Filename Generation
This expansion, commonly referred to as globbing, is always done last.
The following sections explain the types of expansion in detail.
14.1 History Expansion
History expansion allows you to use words from previous command lines in the command line you are typing. This simplifies spelling corrections and the repetition of complicated commands or arguments.
Immediately before execution, each command is saved in the history list,
the size of which is controlled by the HISTSIZE
parameter. The one
most recent command is always retained in any case. Each saved command
in the history list is called a history event and is assigned a
number, beginning with 1 (one) when the shell starts up. The history
number that you may see in your prompt (see Prompt
Expansion) is the number that
is to be assigned to the next command.
14.1.1 Overview
A history expansion begins with the first character of the histchars
parameter, which is ‘!
’ by default, and may occur anywhere on the
command line, including inside double quotes (but not inside single
quotes ’...’
or C-style quotes $’...’
nor when escaped with a
backslash).
The first character is followed by an optional event designator (Event Designators) and then an optional word designator (Word Designators); if neither of these designators is present, no history expansion occurs.
Input lines containing history expansions are echoed after being expanded, but before any other expansions take place and before the command is executed. It is this expanded form that is recorded as the history event for later references.
History expansions do not nest.
By default, a history reference with no event designator refers to the
same event as any preceding history reference on that command line; if
it is the only history reference in a command, it refers to the previous
command.
However, if the option CSH_JUNKIE_HISTORY
is set, then every history
reference with no event specification always refers to the previous
command.
For example, ‘!
’ is the event designator for the previous command, so
‘!!:1
’ always refers to the first word of the previous command, and
‘!!$
’ always refers to the last word of the previous command. With
CSH_JUNKIE_HISTORY
set, then ‘!:1
’ and ‘!$
’ function in the same
manner as ‘!!:1
’ and ‘!!$
’, respectively. Conversely, if
CSH_JUNKIE_HISTORY
is unset, then ‘!:1
’ and ‘!$
’ refer to the
first and last words, respectively, of the same event referenced by the
nearest other history reference preceding them on the current command
line, or to the previous command if there is no preceding reference.
The character sequence ‘^``foo``^``bar
’ (where ‘^
’ is actually the
second character of the histchars
parameter) repeats the last command,
replacing the string foo
with bar
. More precisely, the sequence
‘^``foo``^``bar``^
’ is synonymous with ‘!!:s``^``foo``^``bar``^
’,
hence other modifiers (see Modifiers) may follow the final
‘^
’. In particular, ‘^``foo``^``bar``^:G
’ performs a global
substitution.
If the shell encounters the character sequence ‘!"
’ in the input, the
history mechanism is temporarily disabled until the current list (see
Shell Grammar) is fully parsed. The
‘!"
’ is removed from the input, and any subsequent ‘!
’ characters
have no special significance.
A less convenient but more comprehensible form of command history
support is provided by the fc
builtin.
14.1.2 Event Designators
An event designator is a reference to a command-line entry in the
history list. In the list below, remember that the initial ‘!’
in each
item may be changed to another character by setting the histchars
parameter.
-
!
Start a history expansion, except when followed by a blank, newline, ‘=
’ or ‘(
’. If followed immediately by a word designator (Word Designators), this forms a history reference with no event designator (Overview). -
!!
Refer to the previous command. By itself, this expansion repeats the previous command. -
!``n
Refer to command-linen
. -
!-``n
Refer to the current command-line minusn
. -
!``str
Refer to the most recent command starting withstr
. -
!?``str
[?
]
Refer to the most recent command containingstr
. The trailing ‘?
’ is necessary if this reference is to be followed by a modifier or followed by any text that is not to be considered part ofstr
. -
!#
Refer to the current command line typed in so far. The line is treated as if it were complete up to and including the word before the one with the ‘!#
’ reference. -
!{
...}
Insulate a history reference from adjacent characters (if necessary).
14.1.3 Word Designators
A word designator indicates which word or words of a given command line
are to be included in a history reference. A ‘:
’ usually separates the
event specification from the word designator. It may be omitted only if
the word designator begins with a ‘^
’, ‘$
’, ‘*
’, ‘-
’ or ‘%
’.
Word designators include:
-
0
The first input word (command). -
n
Then
th argument. -
^
The first argument. That is,1
. -
$
The last argument. -
%
The word matched by (the most recent)?``str
search. -
x``-``y
A range of words;x
defaults to0
. -
*
All the arguments, or a null value if there are none. -
x``*
Abbreviates ‘x``-$
’. -
x``-
Like ‘x``*
’ but omitting word$
.
Note that a ‘%
’ word designator works only when used in one of ‘!%
’,
‘!:%
’ or ‘!?``str``?:%
’, and only when used after a !?
expansion
(possibly in an earlier command). Anything else results in an error,
although the error may not be the most obvious one.
14.1.4 Modifiers
After the optional word designator, you can add a sequence of one or
more of the following modifiers, each preceded by a ‘:
’. These
modifiers also work on the result of filename generation and
parameter expansion, except where noted.
-
a
Turn a file name into an absolute path: prepends the current directory, if necessary; remove ‘.
’ path segments; and remove ‘..
’ path segments and the segments that immediately precede them.This transformation is agnostic about what is in the filesystem, i.e. is on the logical, not the physical directory. It takes place in the same manner as when changing directories when neither of the options
CHASE_DOTS
orCHASE_LINKS
is set. For example, ‘/before/here/../after
’ is always transformed to ‘/before/after
’, regardless of whether ‘/before/here
’ exists or what kind of object (dir, file, symlink, etc.) it is. -
A
Turn a file name into an absolute path as the ‘a
’ modifier does, and then pass the result through therealpath(3)
library function to resolve symbolic links.Note: on systems that do not have a
realpath(3)
library function, symbolic links are not resolved, so on those systems ‘a
’ and ‘A
’ are equivalent.Note:
foo:A
andrealpath(foo)
are different on some inputs. Forrealpath(foo)
semantics, see the ‘P
‘ modifier. -
c
Resolve a command name into an absolute path by searching the command path given by thePATH
variable. This does not work for commands containing directory parts. Note also that this does not usually work as a glob qualifier unless a file of the same name is found in the current directory. -
e
Remove all but the part of the filename extension following the ‘.
’; see the definition of the filename extension in the description of ther
modifier below. Note that according to that definition the result will be empty if the string ends with a ‘.
’. -
h
[digits
]
Remove a trailing pathname component, shortening the path by one directory level: this is the ‘head’ of the pathname. This works like ‘dirname
’. If theh
is followed immediately (with no spaces or other separator) by any number of decimal digits, and the value of the resulting number is non-zero, that number of leading components is preserved instead of the final component being removed. In an absolute path the leading ‘/
’ is the first component, so, for example, ifvar=/my/path/to/something
, then${var:h3}
substitutes/my/path
. Consecutive ‘/’s are treated the same as a single ‘/’. In parameter substitution, digits may only be used if the expression is in braces, so for example the short form substitution$var:h2
is treated as${var:h}2
, not as${var:h2}
. No restriction applies to the use of digits in history substitution or globbing qualifiers. If more components are requested than are present, the entire path is substituted (so this does not trigger a ‘failed modifier’ error in history expansion). -
l
Convert the words to all lowercase. -
p
Print the new command but do not execute it. Only works with history expansion. -
P
Turn a file name into an absolute path, likerealpath(3)
. The resulting path will be absolute, have neither ‘.
’ nor ‘..
’ components, and refer to the same directory entry as the input filename.Unlike
realpath(3)
, non-existent trailing components are permitted and preserved. -
q
Quote the substituted words, escaping further substitutions. Works with history expansion and parameter expansion, though for parameters it is only useful if the resulting text is to be re-evaluated such as byeval
. -
Q
Remove one level of quotes from the substituted words. -
r
Remove a filename extension leaving the root name. Strings with no filename extension are not altered. A filename extension is a ‘.
’ followed by any number of characters (including zero) that are neither ‘.
’ nor ‘/
’ and that continue to the end of the string. For example, the extension of ‘foo.orig.c
’ is ‘.c
’, and ‘dir.c/foo
’ has no extension. -
s/``l``/``r
[/
]
Substituter
forl
as described below. The substitution is done only for the first string that matchesl
. For arrays and for filename generation, this applies to each word of the expanded text. See below for further notes on substitutions.The forms ‘
gs/``l``/``r
’ and ‘s/``l``/``r``/:G
’ perform global substitution, i.e. substitute every occurrence ofr
forl
. Note that theg
or:G
must appear in exactly the position shown.See further notes on this form of substitution below.
-
&
Repeat the previouss
substitution. Likes
, may be preceded immediately by ag
. In parameter expansion the&
must appear inside braces, and in filename generation it must be quoted with a backslash. -
t
[digits
]
Remove all leading pathname components, leaving the final component (tail). This works like ‘basename
’. Any trailing slashes are first removed. Decimal digits are handled as described above for (h), but in this case that number of trailing components is preserved instead of the default 1; 0 is treated the same as 1. -
u
Convert the words to all uppercase. -
x
Likeq
, but break into words at whitespace. Does not work with parameter expansion.
The s/``l``/``r``/
substitution works as follows. By default the
left-hand side of substitutions are not patterns, but character strings.
Any character can be used as the delimiter in place of ‘/
’. A
backslash quotes the delimiter character. The character ‘&
’, in the
right-hand-side r
, is replaced by the text from the left-hand-side
l
. The ‘&
’ can be quoted with a backslash. A null l
uses the
previous string either from the previous l
or from the contextual scan
string s
from ‘!?``s
’. You can omit the rightmost delimiter if a
newline immediately follows r
; the rightmost ‘?
’ in a context scan
can similarly be omitted. Note the same record of the last l
and r
is maintained across all forms of expansion.
Note that if a ‘&
’ is used within glob qualifiers an extra backslash
is needed as a &
is a special character in this case.
Also note that the order of expansions affects the interpretation of l
and r
. When used in a history expansion, which occurs before any other
expansions, l
and r
are treated as literal strings (except as
explained for HIST_SUBST_PATTERN
below). When used in parameter
expansion, the replacement of r
into the parameter’s value is done
first, and then any additional process, parameter, command, arithmetic,
or brace references are applied, which may evaluate those substitutions
and expansions more than once if l
appears more than once in the
starting value. When used in a glob qualifier, any substitutions or
expansions are performed once at the time the qualifier is parsed, even
before the ‘:s
’ expression itself is divided into l
and r
sides.
If the option HIST_SUBST_PATTERN
is set, l
is treated as a pattern
of the usual form described in Filename
Generation. This can be used in all the places
where modifiers are available; note, however, that in globbing
qualifiers parameter substitution has already taken place, so parameters
in the replacement string should be quoted to ensure they are replaced
at the correct time. Note also that complicated patterns used in
globbing qualifiers may need the extended glob qualifier notation
(#q:s/``...``/``...``/)
in order for the shell to recognize the
expression as a glob qualifier. Further, note that bad patterns in the
substitution are not subject to the NO_BAD_PATTERN
option so will
cause an error.
When HIST_SUBST_PATTERN
is set, l
may start with a #
to indicate
that the pattern must match at the start of the string to be
substituted, and a %
may appear at the start or after an #
to
indicate that the pattern must match at the end of the string to be
substituted. The %
or #
may be quoted with two backslashes.
For example, the following piece of filename generation code with the
EXTENDED_GLOB
option:
print -r -- *.c(#q:s/#%(#b)s(*).c/'S${match[1]}.C'/)
takes the expansion of *.c
and applies the glob qualifiers in the
(#q``...``)
expression, which consists of a substitution modifier
anchored to the start and end of each word (#%
). This turns on
backreferences ((#b)
), so that the parenthesised subexpression is
available in the replacement string as ${match[1]}
. The replacement
string is quoted so that the parameter is not substituted before the
start of filename generation.
The following f
, F
, w
and W
modifiers work only with parameter
expansion and filename generation. They are listed here to provide a
single point of reference for all modifiers.
-
f
Repeats the immediately (without a colon) following modifier until the resulting word doesn’t change any more. -
F:``expr``:
Likef
, but repeats onlyn
times if the expressionexpr
evaluates ton
. Any character can be used instead of the ‘:
’; if ‘(
’, ‘[
’, or ‘{
’ is used as the opening delimiter, the closing delimiter should be ’)
’, ‘]
’, or ‘}
’, respectively. -
w
Makes the immediately following modifier work on each word in the string. -
W:``sep``:
Likew
but words are considered to be the parts of the string that are separated bysep
. Any character can be used instead of the ‘:
’; opening parentheses are handled specially, see above.
14.2 Process Substitution
Each part of a command argument that takes the form ‘<(``list``)
’,
‘>(``list``)
’ or ‘=(``list``)
’ is subject to process substitution.
The expression may be preceded or followed by other strings except that,
to prevent clashes with commonly occurring strings and patterns, the
last form must occur at the start of a command argument, and the forms
are only expanded when first parsing command or assignment arguments.
Process substitutions may be used following redirection operators; in
this case, the substitution must appear with no trailing string.
Note that ‘<<(``list``)
’ is not a special syntax; it is equivalent to
‘< <(``list``)
’, redirecting standard input from the result of
process substitution. Hence all the following documentation applies. The
second form (with the space) is recommended for clarity.
In the case of the <
or >
forms, the shell runs the commands in
list
as a subprocess of the job executing the shell command line. If
the system supports the /dev/fd
mechanism, the command argument is the
name of the device file corresponding to a file descriptor; otherwise,
if the system supports named pipes (FIFOs), the command argument will be
a named pipe. If the form with >
is selected then writing on this
special file will provide input for list
. If <
is used, then the
file passed as an argument will be connected to the output of the list
process. For example,
paste <(cut -f1 file1) <(cut -f3 file2) |
tee >(process1) >(process2) >/dev/null
cuts fields 1 and 3 from the files file1
and file2
respectively,
pastes the results together, and sends it to the processes process1
and process2
.
If =(``...``)
is used instead of <(``...``)
, then the file passed as
an argument will be the name of a temporary file containing the output
of the list
process. This may be used instead of the <
form for a
program that expects to lseek (see man page lseek(2)) on the input file.
There is an optimisation for substitutions of the form =(<<<``arg``)
,
where arg
is a single-word argument to the here-string redirection
<<<
. This form produces a file name containing the value of arg
after any substitutions have been performed. This is handled entirely
within the current shell. This is effectively the reverse of the special
form $(<``arg``)
which treats arg
as a file name and replaces it
with the file’s contents.
The =
form is useful as both the /dev/fd
and the named pipe
implementation of <(``...``)
have drawbacks. In the former case, some
programmes may automatically close the file descriptor in question
before examining the file on the command line, particularly if this is
necessary for security reasons such as when the programme is running
setuid. In the second case, if the programme does not actually open the
file, the subshell attempting to read from or write to the pipe will (in
a typical implementation, different operating systems may have different
behaviour) block for ever and have to be killed explicitly. In both
cases, the shell actually supplies the information using a pipe, so that
programmes that expect to lseek (see man page lseek(2)) on the file will
not work.
Also note that the previous example can be more compactly and
efficiently written (provided the MULTIOS
option is set) as:
paste <(cut -f1 file1) <(cut -f3 file2) > >(process1) > >(process2)
The shell uses pipes instead of FIFOs to implement the latter two process substitutions in the above example.
There is an additional problem with >(``process``)
; when this is
attached to an external command, the parent shell does not wait for
process
to finish and hence an immediately following command cannot
rely on the results being complete. The problem and solution are the
same as described in the section MULTIOS in
Redirection. Hence in a simplified
version of the example above:
paste <(cut -f1 file1) <(cut -f3 file2) > >(process)
(note that no MULTIOS
are involved), process
will be run
asynchronously as far as the parent shell is concerned. The workaround
is:
{ paste <(cut -f1 file1) <(cut -f3 file2) } > >(process)
The extra processes here are spawned from the parent shell which will wait for their completion.
Another problem arises any time a job with a substitution that requires
a temporary file is disowned by the shell, including the case where
‘&!
’ or ‘&|
’ appears at the end of a command containing a
substitution. In that case the temporary file will not be cleaned up as
the shell no longer has any memory of the job. A workaround is to use a
subshell, for example,
(mycmd =(myoutput)) &!
as the forked subshell will wait for the command to finish then remove the temporary file.
A general workaround to ensure a process substitution endures for an appropriate length of time is to pass it as a parameter to an anonymous shell function (a piece of shell code that is run immediately with function scope). For example, this code:
() {
print File $1:
cat $1
} =(print This be the verse)
outputs something resembling the following
File /tmp/zsh6nU0kS:
This be the verse
The temporary file created by the process substitution will be deleted when the function exits.
14.3 Parameter Expansion
The character ‘$
’ is used to introduce parameter expansions. See
Parameters for a description of
parameters, including arrays, associative arrays, and subscript notation
to access individual array elements.
Note in particular the fact that words of unquoted parameters are not
automatically split on whitespace unless the option SH_WORD_SPLIT
is
set; see references to this option below for more details. This is an
important difference from other shells. However, as in other shells,
null words are elided from unquoted parameters’ expansions.
With default options, after the assignments:
array=("first word" "" "third word")
scalar="only word"
then $array
substitutes two words, ‘first word
’ and ‘third word
’,
and $scalar
substitutes a single word ‘only word
’. Note that second
element of array
was elided. Scalar parameters can be elided too if
their value is null (empty). To avoid elision, use quoting as follows:
"$scalar"
for scalars and "${array[@]}"
or "${(@)array}"
for
arrays. (The last two forms are equivalent.)
Parameter expansions can involve flags, as in ‘${(@kv)aliases}
’, and
other operators, such as ‘${PREFIX:-"/usr/local"}
’. Parameter
expansions can also be nested. These topics will be introduced below.
The full rules are complicated and are noted at the end.
In the expansions discussed below that require a pattern, the form of
the pattern is the same as that used for filename generation; see
Filename Generation. Note that these patterns,
along with the replacement text of any substitutions, are themselves
subject to parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic
expansion. In addition to the following operations, the colon modifiers
described in Modifiers in History
Expansion can be applied: for example,
${i:s/foo/bar/}
performs string substitution on the expansion of
parameter $i
.
In the following descriptions, ‘word
’ refers to a single word
substituted on the command line, not necessarily a space delimited word.
-
${``name``}
The value, if any, of the parametername
is substituted. The braces are required if the expansion is to be followed by a letter, digit, or underscore that is not to be interpreted as part ofname
. In addition, more complicated forms of substitution usually require the braces to be present; exceptions, which only apply if the optionKSH_ARRAYS
is not set, are a single subscript or any colon modifiers appearing after the name, or any of the characters ‘^
’, ‘=
’, ‘~
’, ‘#
’ or ‘+
’ appearing before the name, all of which work with or without braces.If
name
is an array parameter, and theKSH_ARRAYS
option is not set, then the value of each element ofname
is substituted, one element per word. Otherwise, the expansion results in one word only; withKSH_ARRAYS
, this is the first element of an array. No field splitting is done on the result unless theSH_WORD_SPLIT
option is set. See also the flags=
ands:``string``:
. -
${+``name``}
Ifname
is the name of a set parameter ‘1
’ is substituted, otherwise ‘0
’ is substituted. -
${``name``-``word``}
${``name``:-``word``}
Ifname
is set, or in the second form is non-null, then substitute its value; otherwise substituteword
. In the second formname
may be omitted, in which caseword
is always substituted. -
${``name``+``word``}
${``name``:+``word``}
Ifname
is set, or in the second form is non-null, then substituteword
; otherwise substitute nothing. -
${``name``=``word``}
${``name``:=``word``}
${``name``::=``word``}
In the first form, ifname
is unset then set it toword
; in the second form, ifname
is unset or null then set it toword
; and in the third form, unconditionally setname
toword
. In all forms, the value of the parameter is then substituted. -
${``name``?``word``}
${``name``:?``word``}
In the first form, ifname
is set, or in the second form ifname
is both set and non-null, then substitute its value; otherwise, printword
and exit from the shell. Interactive shells instead return to the prompt. Ifword
is omitted, then a standard message is printed.
In any of the above expressions that test a variable and substitute an
alternate word
, note that you can use standard shell quoting in the
word
value to selectively override the splitting done by the
SH_WORD_SPLIT
option and the =
flag, but not splitting by the
s:``string``:
flag.
In the following expressions, when name
is an array and the
substitution is not quoted, or if the ‘(@)
’ flag or the name``[@]
syntax is used, matching and replacement is performed on each array
element separately.
-
${``name``#``pattern``}
${``name``##``pattern``}
If thepattern
matches the beginning of the value ofname
, then substitute the value ofname
with the matched portion deleted; otherwise, just substitute the value ofname
. In the first form, the smallest matching pattern is preferred; in the second form, the largest matching pattern is preferred. -
${``name``%``pattern``}
${``name``%%``pattern``}
If thepattern
matches the end of the value ofname
, then substitute the value ofname
with the matched portion deleted; otherwise, just substitute the value ofname
. In the first form, the smallest matching pattern is preferred; in the second form, the largest matching pattern is preferred. -
${``name``:#``pattern``}
If thepattern
matches the value ofname
, then substitute the empty string; otherwise, just substitute the value ofname
. Ifname
is an array the matching array elements are removed (use the ‘(M)
’ flag to remove the non-matched elements). -
${``name``:|``arrayname``}
Ifarrayname
is the name (N.B., not contents) of an array variable, then any elements contained inarrayname
are removed from the substitution ofname
. If the substitution is scalar, either becausename
is a scalar variable or the expression is quoted, the elements ofarrayname
are instead tested against the entire expression. -
${``name``:*``arrayname``}
Similar to the preceding substitution, but in the opposite sense, so that entries present in both the original substitution and as elements ofarrayname
are retained and others removed. -
${``name``:^``arrayname``}
${``name``:^^``arrayname``}
Zips two arrays, such that the output array is twice as long as the shortest (longest for ‘:^^
’) ofname
andarrayname
, with the elements alternatingly being picked from them. For ‘:^
’, if one of the input arrays is longer, the output will stop when the end of the shorter array is reached. Thus,a=(1 2 3 4); b=(a b); print ${a:^b}
will output ‘
1 a 2 b
’. For ‘:^^
’, then the input is repeated until all of the longer array has been used up and the above will output ‘1 a 2 b 3 a 4 b
’.Either or both inputs may be a scalar, they will be treated as an array of length 1 with the scalar as the only element. If either array is empty, the other array is output with no extra elements inserted.
Currently the following code will output ‘
a b
’ and ‘1
’ as two separate elements, which can be unexpected. The second print provides a workaround which should continue to work if this is changed.a=(a b); b=(1 2); print -l "${a:^b}"; print -l "${${a:^b}}"
-
${``name``:``offset``}
${``name``:``offset``:``length``}
This syntax gives effects similar to parameter subscripting in the form$``name``[``start``,``end``]
, but is compatible with other shells; note that bothoffset
andlength
are interpreted differently from the components of a subscript.If
offset
is non-negative, then if the variablename
is a scalar substitute the contents startingoffset
characters from the first character of the string, and ifname
is an array substitute elements startingoffset
elements from the first element. Iflength
is given, substitute that many characters or elements, otherwise the entire rest of the scalar or array.A positive
offset
is always treated as the offset of a character or element inname
from the first character or element of the array (this is different from native zsh subscript notation). Hence 0 refers to the first character or element regardless of the setting of the optionKSH_ARRAYS
.A negative offset counts backwards from the end of the scalar or array, so that -1 corresponds to the last character or element, and so on.
When positive,
length
counts from theoffset
position toward the end of the scalar or array. When negative,length
counts back from the end. If this results in a position smaller thanoffset
, a diagnostic is printed and nothing is substituted.The option
MULTIBYTE
is obeyed, i.e. the offset and length count multibyte characters where appropriate.offset
andlength
undergo the same set of shell substitutions as for scalar assignment; in addition, they are then subject to arithmetic evaluation. Hence, for exampleprint ${foo:3} print ${foo: 1 + 2} print ${foo:$(( 1 + 2))} print ${foo:$(echo 1 + 2)}
all have the same effect, extracting the string starting at the fourth character of
$foo
if the substitution would otherwise return a scalar, or the array starting at the fourth element if$foo
would return an array. Note that with the optionKSH_ARRAYS
$foo
always returns a scalar (regardless of the use of the offset syntax) and a form such as${foo[*]:3}
is required to extract elements of an array namedfoo
.If
offset
is negative, the-
may not appear immediately after the:
as this indicates the${``name``:-``word``}
form of substitution. Instead, a space may be inserted before the-
. Furthermore, neitheroffset
norlength
may begin with an alphabetic character or&
as these are used to indicate history-style modifiers. To substitute a value from a variable, the recommended approach is to precede it with a$
as this signifies the intention (parameter substitution can easily be rendered unreadable); however, as arithmetic substitution is performed, the expression${var: offs}
does work, retrieving the offset from$offs
.For further compatibility with other shells there is a special case for array offset 0. This usually accesses the first element of the array. However, if the substitution refers to the positional parameter array, e.g.
$@
or$*
, then offset 0 instead refers to$0
, offset 1 refers to$1
, and so on. In other words, the positional parameter array is effectively extended by prepending$0
. Hence${*:0:1}
substitutes$0
and${*:1:1}
substitutes$1
. -
${``name``/``pattern``/``repl``}
${``name``//``pattern``/``repl``}
${``name``:/``pattern``/``repl``}
Replace the longest possible match ofpattern
in the expansion of parametername
by stringrepl
. The first form replaces just the first occurrence, the second form all occurrences, and the third form replaces only ifpattern
matches the entire string. Bothpattern
andrepl
are subject to double-quoted substitution, so that expressions like${name/$opat/$npat}
will work, but obey the usual rule that pattern characters in$opat
are not treated specially unless either the optionGLOB_SUBST
is set, or$opat
is instead substituted as${~opat}
.The
pattern
may begin with a ‘#
’, in which case thepattern
must match at the start of the string, or ‘%
’, in which case it must match at the end of the string, or ‘#%
’ in which case thepattern
must match the entire string. Therepl
may be an empty string, in which case the final ‘/
’ may also be omitted. To quote the final ‘/
’ in other cases it should be preceded by a single backslash; this is not necessary if the ‘/
’ occurs inside a substituted parameter. Note also that the ‘#
’, ‘%
’ and ‘#%
are not active if they occur inside a substituted parameter, even at the start.If, after quoting rules apply,
${``name``}
expands to an array, the replacements act on each element individually. Note also the effect of theI
andS
parameter expansion flags below; however, the flagsM
,R
,B
,E
andN
are not useful.For example,
foo="twinkle twinkle little star" sub="t*e" rep="spy" print ${foo//${~sub}/$rep} print ${(S)foo//${~sub}/$rep}
Here, the ‘
~
’ ensures that the text of$sub
is treated as a pattern rather than a plain string. In the first case, the longest match fort*e
is substituted and the result is ‘spy star
’, while in the second case, the shortest matches are taken and the result is ‘spy spy lispy star
’. -
${#``spec``}
Ifspec
is one of the above substitutions, substitute the length in characters of the result instead of the result itself. Ifspec
is an array expression, substitute the number of elements of the result. This has the side-effect that joining is skipped even in quoted forms, which may affect other sub-expressions inspec
. Note that ‘^
’, ‘=
’, and ‘~
’, below, must appear to the left of ‘#
’ when these forms are combined.If the option
POSIX_IDENTIFIERS
is not set, andspec
is a simple name, then the braces are optional; this is true even for special parameters so e.g.$#-
and$#*
take the length of the string$-
and the array$*
respectively. IfPOSIX_IDENTIFIERS
is set, then braces are required for the#
to be treated in this fashion. -
${^``spec``}
Turn on the
RC_EXPAND_PARAM
option for the evaluation ofspec
; if the ‘^
’ is doubled, turn it off. When this option is set, array expansions of the formfoo``${``xx``}``bar
, where the parameterxx
is set to(``a b c``)
, are substituted with ‘fooabar foobbar foocbar
’ instead of the default ‘fooa b cbar
’. Note that an empty array will therefore cause all arguments to be removed.Internally, each such expansion is converted into the equivalent list for brace expansion. E.g.,
${^var}
becomes{$var[1],$var[2],
...}
, and is processed as described in Brace Expansion below: note, however, the expansion happens immediately, with any explicit brace expansion happening later. If word splitting is also in effect the$var[``N``]
may themselves be split into different list elements. -
${=``spec``}
Perform word splitting using the rules for
SH_WORD_SPLIT
during the evaluation ofspec
, but regardless of whether the parameter appears in double quotes; if the ‘=
’ is doubled, turn it off. This forces parameter expansions to be split into separate words before substitution, usingIFS
as a delimiter. This is done by default in most other shells.Note that splitting is applied to
word
in the assignment forms ofspec
before the assignment toname
is performed. This affects the result of array assignments with theA
flag. -
${~``spec``}
Turn on the
GLOB_SUBST
option for the evaluation ofspec
; if the ‘~
’ is doubled, turn it off. When this option is set, the string resulting from the expansion will be interpreted as a pattern anywhere that is possible, such as in filename expansion and filename generation and pattern-matching contexts like the right hand side of the ‘=
’ and ‘!=
’ operators in conditions.In nested substitutions, note that the effect of the
~
applies to the result of the current level of substitution. A surrounding pattern operation on the result may cancel it. Hence, for example, if the parameterfoo
is set to*
,${~foo//\*/*.c}
is substituted by the pattern*.c
, which may be expanded by filename generation, but${${~foo}//\*/*.c}
substitutes to the string*.c
, which will not be further expanded.
If a ${
...}
type parameter expression or a $(
...)
type command
substitution is used in place of name
above, it is expanded first and
the result is used as if it were the value of name
. Thus it is
possible to perform nested operations: ${${foo#head}%tail}
substitutes
the value of $foo
with both ‘head
’ and ‘tail
’ deleted. The form
with $(
...)
is often useful in combination with the flags described
next; see the examples below. Each name
or nested ${
...}
in a
parameter expansion may also be followed by a subscript expression as
described in Array Parameters.
Note that double quotes may appear around nested expressions, in which
case only the part inside is treated as quoted; for example,
${(f)"$(foo)"}
quotes the result of $(foo)
, but the flag ‘(f)
’
(see below) is applied using the rules for unquoted expansions. Note
further that quotes are themselves nested in this context; for example,
in "${(@f)"$(foo)"}"
, there are two sets of quotes, one surrounding
the whole expression, the other (redundant) surrounding the $(foo)
as
before.
14.3.1 Parameter Expansion Flags
If the opening brace is directly followed by an opening parenthesis, the
string up to the matching closing parenthesis will be taken as a list of
flags. In cases where repeating a flag is meaningful, the repetitions
need not be consecutive; for example, ‘(q%q%q
)’ means the same thing
as the more readable ‘(%%qqq
)’. The following flags are supported:
-
#
Evaluate the resulting words as numeric expressions and output the characters corresponding to the resulting integer. Note that this form is entirely distinct from use of the#
without parentheses.If the
MULTIBYTE
option is set and the number is greater than 127 (i.e. not an ASCII character) it is treated as a Unicode character. -
%
Expand all%
escapes in the resulting words in the same way as in prompts (see Prompt Expansion). If this flag is given twice, full prompt expansion is done on the resulting words, depending on the setting of thePROMPT_PERCENT
,PROMPT_SUBST
andPROMPT_BANG
options. -
@
In double quotes, array elements are put into separate words. E.g., ‘"${(@)foo}"
’ is equivalent to ‘"${foo[@]}"
’ and ‘"${(@)foo[1,2]}"
’ is the same as ‘"$foo[1]" "$foo[2]"
’. This is distinct from field splitting by thef
,s
orz
flags, which still applies within each array element. -
A
Convert the substitution into an array expression, even if it otherwise would be scalar. This has lower precedence than subscripting, so one level of nested expansion is required in order that subscripts apply to array elements. Thus${${(A``)``name``}[1]}
yields the full value ofname
whenname
is scalar.This assigns an array parameter with ‘
${
...=
...}
’, ‘${
...:=
...}
’ or ‘${
...::=
...}
’. If this flag is repeated (as in ‘AA
’), assigns an associative array parameter. Assignment is made before sorting or padding; if field splitting is active, theword
part is split before assignment. Thename
part may be a subscripted range for ordinary arrays; when assigning an associative array, theword
part must be converted to an array, for example by using ‘${(AA)=``name``=
...}
’ to activate field splitting.Surrounding context such as additional nesting or use of the value in a scalar assignment may cause the array to be joined back into a single string again.
-
a
Sort in array index order; when combined with ‘O
’ sort in reverse array index order. Note that ‘a
’ is therefore equivalent to the default but ‘Oa
’ is useful for obtaining an array’s elements in reverse order. -
b
Quote with backslashes only characters that are special to pattern matching. This is useful when the contents of the variable are to be tested usingGLOB_SUBST
, including the${~``...``}
switch.Quoting using one of the
q
family of flags does not work for this purpose since quotes are not stripped from non-pattern characters byGLOB_SUBST
. In other words,pattern=${(q)str} [[ $str = ${~pattern} ]]
works if
$str
is ‘a*b
’ but not if it is ‘a b
’, whereaspattern=${(b)str} [[ $str = ${~pattern} ]]
is always true for any possible value of
$str
. -
c
With${#``name``}
, count the total number of characters in an array, as if the elements were concatenated with spaces between them. This is not a true join of the array, so other expressions used with this flag may have an effect on the elements of the array before it is counted. -
C
Capitalize the resulting words. ‘Words’ in this case refers to sequences of alphanumeric characters separated by non-alphanumerics, not to words that result from field splitting. -
D
Assume the string or array elements contain directories and attempt to substitute the leading part of these by names. The remainder of the path (the whole of it if the leading part was not substituted) is then quoted so that the whole string can be used as a shell argument. This is the reverse of ‘~
’ substitution: see Filename Expansion. -
e
Perform single word shell expansions, namely parameter expansion, command substitution and arithmetic expansion, on the result. Such expansions can be nested but too deep recursion may have -
f
Split the result of the expansion at newlines. This is a shorthand for ‘ps:\n:
’. -
F
Join the words of arrays together using newline as a separator. This is a shorthand for ‘pj:\n:
’. -
g:``opts``:
Process escape sequences like the echo builtin when no options are given (g::
). With theo
option, octal escapes don’t take a leading zero. With thec
option, sequences like ‘^X
’ are also processed. With thee
option, processes ‘\M-t
’ and similar sequences like the print builtin. With both of theo
ande
options, behaves like the print builtin except that in none of these modes is ‘\c
’ interpreted. -
i
Sort case-insensitively. May be combined with ‘n
’ or ‘O
’. -
k
Ifname
refers to an associative array, substitute the keys (element names) rather than the values of the elements. Used with subscripts (including ordinary arrays), force indices or keys to be substituted even if the subscript form refers to values. However, this flag may not be combined with subscript ranges. With theKSH_ARRAYS
option a subscript ‘[*]
’ or ‘[@]
’ is needed to operate on the whole array, as usual. -
L
Convert all letters in the result to lower case. -
n
Sort decimal integers numerically; if the first differing characters of two test strings are not digits, sorting is lexical. Integers with more initial zeroes are sorted before those with fewer or none. Hence the array ‘foo1 foo02 foo2 foo3 foo20 foo23
’ is sorted into the order shown. May be combined with ‘i
’ or ‘O
’. -
o
Sort the resulting words in ascending order; if this appears on its own the sorting is lexical and case-sensitive (unless the locale renders it case-insensitive). Sorting in ascending order is the default for other forms of sorting, so this is ignored if combined with ‘a
’, ‘i
’ or ‘n
’. -
O
Sort the resulting words in descending order; ‘O
’ without ‘a
’, ‘i
’ or ‘n
’ sorts in reverse lexical order. May be combined with ‘a
’, ‘i
’ or ‘n
’ to reverse the order of sorting. -
P
This forces the value of the parametername
to be interpreted as a further parameter name, whose value will be used where appropriate. Note that flags set with one of thetypeset
family of commands (in particular case transformations) are not applied to the value ofname
used in this fashion.If used with a nested parameter or command substitution, the result of that will be taken as a parameter name in the same way. For example, if you have ‘
foo=bar
’ and ‘bar=baz
’, the strings${(P)foo}
,${(P)${foo}}
, and${(P)$(echo bar)}
will be expanded to ‘baz
’.Likewise, if the reference is itself nested, the expression with the flag is treated as if it were directly replaced by the parameter name. It is an error if this nested substitution produces an array with more than one word. For example, if ‘
name=assoc
’ where the parameterassoc
is an associative array, then ‘${${(P)name}[elt]}
’ refers to the element of the associative subscripted ‘elt
’. -
q
Quote characters that are special to the shell in the resulting words with$’\``NNN``’
form, with separate quotes for each octet.If this flag is given twice, the resulting words are quoted in single quotes and if it is given three times, the words are quoted in double characters is attempted. If the flag is given four times, the words are quoted in single quotes preceded by a
$
. Note that in all three of these forms quoting is done unconditionally, even if this does not change the way the resulting string would be interpreted by the shell.If a
q-
is given (only a singleq
may appear), a minimal form of single quoting is used that only quotes the string if needed to protect special characters. Typically this form gives the most readable output.If a
q+
is given, an extended form of minimal quoting is used that This quoting is similar to that used by the output of values by thetypeset
family of commands. -
Q
Remove one level of quotes from the resulting words. -
t
Use a string describing the type of the parameter where the value of the parameter would usually appear. This string consists of keywords separated by hyphens (‘-
’). The first keyword in the string describes the main type, it can be one of ‘scalar
’, ‘array
’, ‘integer
’, ‘float
’ or ‘association
’. The other keywords describe the type in more detail:-
local
for local parameters -
left
for left justified parameters -
right_blanks
for right justified parameters with leading blanks -
right_zeros
for right justified parameters with leading zeros -
lower
for parameters whose value is converted to all lower case when it is expanded -
upper
for parameters whose value is converted to all upper case when it is expanded -
readonly
for readonly parameters -
tag
for tagged parameters -
export
for exported parameters -
unique
for arrays which keep only the first occurrence of duplicated values -
hide
for parameters with the ‘hide’ flag -
hideval
for parameters with the ‘hideval’ flag -
special
for special parameters defined by the shell
-
-
u
Expand only the first occurrence of each unique word. -
U
Convert all letters in the result to upper case. -
v
Used withk
, substitute (as two consecutive words) both the key and the value of each associative array element. Used with subscripts, force values to be substituted even if the subscript form refers to indices or keys. -
V
Make any special characters in the resulting words visible. -
w
With${#``name``}
, count words in arrays or strings; thes
flag may be used to set a word delimiter. -
W
Similar tow
with the difference that empty words between repeated delimiters are also counted. -
X
With this flag, parsing errors occurring with theQ
,e
and#
flags or the pattern matching forms such as ‘${``name``#``pattern``}
’ are reported. Without the flag, errors are silently ignored. -
z
Split the result of the expansion into words using shell parsing to find the words, i.e. taking into account any quoting in the value. Comments are not treated specially but as ordinary strings, similar to interactive shells with theINTERACTIVE_COMMENTS
option unset (however, see theZ
flag below for related options)Note that this is done very late, even later than the ‘
(s)
’ flag. So to access single words in the result use nested expansions as in ‘${${(z)foo}[2]}
’. Likewise, to remove the quotes in the resulting words use ‘${(Q)${(z)foo}}
’. -
0
Split the result of the expansion on null bytes. This is a shorthand for ‘ps:\0:
’.
The following flags (except p
) are followed by one or more arguments
as shown. Any character, or the matching pairs ‘(
...)
’, ‘{
...}
’,
‘[
...]
’, or ‘<
...>
’, may be used in place of a colon as
delimiters, but note that when a flag takes more than one argument, a
matched pair of delimiters must surround each argument.
-
p
Recognize the same escape sequences as theprint
builtin in string arguments to any of the flags described below that follow this argument.Alternatively, with this option string arguments may be in the form
$``var
in which case the value of the variable is substituted. Note this form is strict; the string argument does not undergo general parameter expansion.For example,
sep=: val=a:b:c print ${(ps.$sep.)val}
splits the variable on a
:
. -
~
Strings inserted into the expansion by any of the flags below are to be treated as patterns. This applies to the string arguments of flags that follow~
within the same set of parentheses. Compare with~
outside parentheses, which forces the entire substituted string to be treated as a pattern. Hence, for example,[[ "?" = ${(~j.|.)array} ]]
treats ‘
|
’ as a pattern and succeeds if and only if$array
contains the string ‘?
’ as an element. The~
may be repeated to toggle the behaviour; its effect only lasts to the end of the parenthesised group. -
j:``string``:
Join the words of arrays together usingstring
as a separator. Note that this occurs before field splitting by thes:``string``:
flag or theSH_WORD_SPLIT
option. -
l:``expr``::``string1``::``string2``:
Pad the resulting words on the left. Each word will be truncated if required and placed in a fieldexpr
characters wide.The arguments
:``string1``:
and:``string2``:
are optional; neither, the first, or both may be given. Note that the same pairs of delimiters must be used for each of the three arguments. The space to the left will be filled withstring1
(concatenated as often as needed) or spaces ifstring1
is not given. If bothstring1
andstring2
are given,string2
is inserted once directly to the left of each word, truncated if necessary, beforestring1
is used to produce any remaining padding.If either of
string1
orstring2
is present but empty, i.e. there are two delimiters together at that point, the first character of$IFS
is used instead.If the
MULTIBYTE
option is in effect, the flagm
may also be given, in which case widths will be used for the calculation of padding; otherwise individual multibyte characters are treated as occupying one unit of width.If the
MULTIBYTE
option is not in effect, each byte in the string is treated as occupying one unit of width.Control characters are always assumed to be one unit wide; this allows the mechanism to be used for generating repetitions of control characters.
-
m
Only useful together with one of the flagsl
orr
or with the#
length operator when theMULTIBYTE
option is in effect. Use the character width reported by the system in calculating how much of the string it occupies or the overall unit, however certain Asian character sets and certain special effects use wider characters; combining characters have zero width. would actually be displayed will vary.If the
m
is repeated, the character either counts zero (if it has effect of counting the number of glyphs (visibly separate characters), except for the case where combining characters themselves have non-zero width (true in certain alphabets). -
r:``expr``::``string1``::``string2``:
Asl
, but pad the words on the right and insertstring2
immediately to the right of the string to be padded.Left and right padding may be used together. In this case the strategy is to apply left padding to the first half width of each of the resulting words, and right padding to the second half. If the string to be padded has odd width the extra padding is applied on the left.
-
s:``string``:
Force field splitting at the separatorstring
. Note that astring
of two or more characters means that all of them must match in sequence; this differs from the treatment of two or more characters in theIFS
parameter. See also the=
flag and theSH_WORD_SPLIT
option. An empty string may also be given in which case every character will be a separate element.For historical reasons, the usual behaviour that empty array elements are retained inside double quotes is disabled for arrays generated by splitting; hence the following:
line="one::three" print -l "${(s.:.)line}"
produces two lines of output for
one
andthree
and elides the empty field. To override this behaviour, supply the ‘(@)
’ flag as well, i.e."${(@s.:.)line}"
. -
Z:``opts``:
Asz
but takes a combination of option letters between a following pair of delimiter characters. With no options the effect is identical toz
.(Z+c+)
causes comments to be parsed as a string and retained; any field in the resulting array beginning with an unquoted comment character is a comment.(Z+C+)
causes comments to be parsed and removed. The rule for comments is standard: anything between a word starting with the third character of$HISTCHARS
, default#
, up to the next newline is a comment.(Z+n+)
causes unquoted newlines to be treated as ordinary whitespace, else they are treated as if they are shell code delimiters and converted to semicolons. Options are combined within the same set of delimiters, e.g.(Z+Cn+)
. -
_:``flags``:
The underscore (_
) flag is reserved for future use. As of this revision of zsh, there are no validflags
; anything following an underscore, other than an empty pair of delimiters, is treated as an error, and the flag itself has no effect.
The following flags are meaningful with the ${
...#
...}
or
${
...%
...}
forms. The S
and I
flags may also be used with the
${
.../
...}
forms.
-
S
With#
or##
, search for the match that starts closest to the start of the string (a ‘substring match’). Of all matches at a particular position,#
selects the shortest and##
the longest:% str="aXbXc" % echo ${(S)str#X*} abXc % echo ${(S)str##X*} a %
With
%
or%%
, search for the match that starts closest to the end of the string:% str="aXbXc" % echo ${(S)str%X*} aXbc % echo ${(S)str%%X*} aXb %
(Note that
%
and%%
don’t search for the match that ends closest to the end of the string, as one might expect.)With substitution via
${
.../
...}
or${
...//
...}
, specifies non-greedy matching, i.e. that the shortest instead of the longest match should be replaced:% str="abab" % echo ${str/*b/_} _ % echo ${(S)str/*b/_} _ab %
-
I:``expr``:
Search theexpr
th match (whereexpr
evaluates to a number). This only applies when searching for substrings, either with theS
flag, or with${
.../
...}
(only theexpr
th match is substituted) or${
...//
...}
(all matches from theexpr
th on are substituted). The default is to take the first match.The
expr
th match is counted such that there is either one or zero matches from each starting position in the string, although for global substitution matches overlapping previous replacements are ignored. With the${
...%
...}
and${
...%%
...}
forms, the starting position for the match moves backwards from the end as the index increases, while with the other forms it moves forward from the start.Hence with the string
which switch is the right switch for Ipswich?
substitutions of the form
${
(SI:``N``:
)string#w*ch}
asN
increases from 1 will match and remove ‘which
’, ‘witch
’, ‘witch
’ and ‘wich
’; the form using ‘##
’ will match and remove ‘which switch is the right switch for Ipswich
’, ‘witch is the right switch for Ipswich
’, ‘witch for Ipswich
’ and ‘wich
’. The form using ‘%
’ will remove the same matches as for ‘#
’, but in reverse order, and the form using ‘%%
’ will remove the same matches as for ‘##
’ in reverse order. -
B
Include the index of the beginning of the match in the result. -
E
Include the index one character past the end of the match in the result (note this is inconsistent with other uses of parameter index). -
M
Include the matched portion in the result. -
N
Include the length of the match in the result. -
R
Include the unmatched portion in the result (the Rest).
14.3.2 Rules
Here is a summary of the rules for substitution; this assumes that
braces are present around the substitution, i.e. ${``...``}
. Some
particular examples are given below. Note that the Zsh Development Group
accepts no responsibility for any brain damage which may occur during
the reading of the following rules.
-
1.
Nested substitution
If multiple nested${``...``}
forms are present, substitution is performed from the inside outwards. At each level, the substitution takes account of whether the current value is a scalar or an array, whether the whole substitution is in double quotes, and what flags are supplied to the current level of substitution, just as if the nested substitution were the outermost. The flags are not propagated up to enclosing substitutions; the nested substitution will return either a scalar or an array as determined by the flags, possibly adjusted for quoting. All the following steps take place where applicable at all levels of substitution.Note that, unless the ‘
(P)
’ flag is present, the flags and any subscripts apply directly to the value of the nested substitution; for example, the expansion${${foo}}
behaves exactly the same as${foo}
. When the ‘(P)
’ flag is present in a nested substitution, the other substitution rules are applied to the value before it is interpreted as a name, so${${(P)foo}}
may differ from${(P)foo}
.At each nested level of substitution, the substituted words undergo all forms of single-word substitution (i.e. not filename generation), including command substitution, arithmetic expansion and filename expansion (i.e. leading
~
and=
). Thus, for example,${${:-=cat}:h}
expands to the directory where thecat
program resides. (Explanation: the internal substitution has no parameter but a default value=cat
, which is expanded by filename expansion to a full path; the outer substitution then applies the modifier:h
and takes the directory part of the path.) -
2.
Internal parameter flags
Any parameter flags set by one of thetypeset
family of commands, in particular the-L
,-R
,-Z
,-u
and-l
options for padding and capitalization, are applied directly to the parameter value. Note these flags are options to the command, e.g. ‘typeset -Z
’; they are not the same as the flags used within parameter substitutions.At the outermost level of substitution, the ‘
(P)
’ flag (rule4.
) ignores these transformations and uses the unmodified value of the parameter as the name to be replaced. This is usually the desired behavior because padding may make the value syntactically illegal as a parameter name, but if capitalization changes are desired, use the${${(P)foo}}
form (rule25.
). -
3.
Parameter subscripting
If the value is a raw parameter reference with a subscript, such as${``var``[3]}
, the effect of subscripting is applied directly to the parameter. Subscripts are evaluated left to right; subsequent subscripts apply to the scalar or array value yielded by the previous subscript. Thus ifvar
is an array,${var[1][2]}
is the second character of the first word, but${var[2,4][2]}
is the entire third word (the second word of the range of words two through four of the original array). Any number of subscripts may appear. Flags such as ‘(k)
’ and ‘(v)
’ which alter the result of subscripting are applied. -
4.
Parameter name replacement
At the outermost level of nesting only, the ‘(P)
’ flag is applied. This treats the value so far as a parameter name (which may include a subscript expression) and replaces that with the corresponding value. This replacement occurs later if the ‘(P)
’ flag appears in a nested substitution.If the value so far names a parameter that has internal flags (rule
2.
), those internal flags are applied to the new value after replacement. -
5.
Double-quoted joining
If the value after this process is an array, and the substitution appears in double quotes, and neither an ‘(@)
’ flag nor a ‘#
’ length operator is present at the current level, then words of the value are joined with the first character of the parameter$IFS
, by default a space, between each word (single word arrays are not modified). If the ‘(j)
’ flag is present, that is used for joining instead of$IFS
. -
6.
Nested subscripting
Any remaining subscripts (i.e. of a nested substitution) are evaluated at this point, based on whether the value is an array or a scalar. As with3.
, multiple subscripts can appear. Note that${foo[2,4][2]}
is thus equivalent to${${foo[2,4]}[2]}
and also to"${${(@)foo[2,4]}[2]}"
(the nested substitution returns an array in both cases), but not to"${${foo[2,4]}[2]}"
(the nested substitution returns a scalar because of the quotes). -
7.
Modifiers
Any modifiers, as specified by a trailing ‘#
’, ‘%
’, ‘/
’ (possibly doubled) or by a set of modifiers of the form ‘:...
’ (see Modifiers in History Expansion), are applied to the words of the value at this level. -
8.
Character evaluation
Any ‘(#)
’ flag is applied, evaluating the result so far numerically as a character. -
9.
Length
Any initial ‘#
’ modifier, i.e. in the form${#``var``}
, is used to evaluate the length of the expression so far. -
10.
Forced joining
If the ‘(j)
’ flag is present, or no ‘(j)
’ flag is present but the string is to be split as given by rule11.
, and joining did not take place at rule5.
, any words in the value are joined together using the given string or the first character of$IFS
if none. Note that the ‘(F)
’ flag implicitly supplies a string for joining in this manner. -
11.
Simple word splitting
If one of the ‘(s)
’ or ‘(f)
’ flags are present, or the ‘=
’ specifier was present (e.g.${=``var``}
), the word is split on occurrences of the specified string, or (for=
with neither of the two flags present) any of the characters in$IFS
.If no ‘
(s)
’, ‘(f)
’ or ‘=
’ was given, but the word is not quoted and the optionSH_WORD_SPLIT
is set, the word is split on occurrences of any of the characters in$IFS
. Note this step, too, takes place at all levels of a nested substitution. -
12.
Case modification
Any case modification from one of the flags ‘(L)
’, ‘(U)
’ or ‘(C)
’ is applied. -
13.
Escape sequence replacement
First any replacements from the ‘(g)
’ flag are performed, then any prompt-style formatting from the ‘(%)
’ family of flags is applied. -
14.
Quote application
Any quoting or unquoting using ‘(q)
’ and ‘(Q)
’ and related flags is applied. -
15.
Directory naming
Any directory name substitution using ‘(D)
’ flag is applied. -
16.
Visibility enhancement
Any modifications to make characters visible using the ‘(V)
’ flag are applied. -
17.
Lexical word splitting
If the ’(z)
’ flag or one of the forms of the ’(Z)
’ flag is present, the word is split as if it were a shell command line, so that quotation marks and other metacharacters are used to decide what constitutes a word. Note this form of splitting is entirely distinct from that described by rule11.
: it does not use$IFS
, and does not cause forced joining. -
18.
Uniqueness
If the result is an array and the ‘(u)
’ flag was present, duplicate elements are removed from the array. -
19.
Ordering
If the result is still an array and one of the ‘(o)
’ or ‘(O)
’ flags was present, the array is reordered. -
20.
RC_EXPAND_PARAM
At this point the decision is made whether any resulting array elements are to be combined element by element with surrounding text, as given by either theRC_EXPAND_PARAM
option or the ‘^
’ flag. -
21.
Re-evaluation
Any ‘(e)
’ flag is applied to the value, forcing it to be re-examined for new parameter substitutions, but also for command and arithmetic substitutions. -
22.
Padding
Any padding of the value by the ‘(l.``fill``.)
’ or ‘(r.``fill``.)
’ flags is applied. -
23.
Semantic joining
In contexts where expansion semantics requires a single word to result, all words are rejoined with the first character ofIFS
between. So in ‘${(P``)${(f``)lines}}
’ the value of${lines}
is split at newlines, but then must be joined again before the ‘(P)
’ flag can be applied.If a single word is not required, this rule is skipped.
-
24.
Empty argument removal
If the substitution does not appear in double quotes, any resulting zero-length argument, whether from a scalar or an element of an array, is elided from the list of arguments inserted into the command line.Strictly speaking, the removal happens later as the same happens with other forms of substitution; the point to note here is simply that it occurs after any of the above parameter operations.
-
25.
Nested parameter name replacement
If the ‘(P)
’ flag is present and rule4.
has not applied, the value so far is treated as a parameter name (which may include a subscript expression) and replaced with the corresponding value, with internal flags (rule2.
) applied to the new value.
14.3.3 Examples
The flag f
is useful to split a double-quoted substitution line by
line. For example, ${(f)"$(<``file``)"}
substitutes the contents of
file
divided so that each line is an element of the resulting array.
Compare this with the effect of $``(<``file``)
alone, which divides
the file up by words, or the same inside double quotes, which makes the
entire content of the file a single string.
The following illustrates the rules for nested parameter expansions.
Suppose that $foo
contains the array (bar baz``)
:
-
"${(@)${foo}[1]}"
This produces the resultb
. First, the inner substitution"${foo}"
, which has no array (@
) flag, produces a single word result"bar baz"
. The outer substitution"${(@)...[1]}"
detects that this is a scalar, so that (despite the ‘(@)
’ flag) the subscript picks the first character. -
"${${(@)foo}[1]}"
This produces the result ‘bar
’. In this case, the inner substitution"${(@)foo}"
produces the array ‘(bar baz``)
’. The outer substitution"${...[1]}"
detects that this is an array and picks the first word. This is similar to the simple case"${foo[1]}"
.
As an example of the rules for word splitting and joining, suppose
$foo
contains the array ‘(ax1 bx1``)
’. Then
-
${(s/x/)foo}
produces the words ‘a
’, ‘1 b
’ and ‘1
’. -
${(j/x/s/x/)foo}
produces ‘a
’, ‘1
’, ‘b
’ and ‘1
’. -
${(s/x/)foo%%1*}
produces ‘a
’ and ‘b
’ (note the extra space). As substitution occurs before either joining or splitting, the operation first generates the modified array(ax bx``)
, which is joined to give"ax bx"
, and then split to give ‘a
’, ‘b
’ and ‘’. The final empty string will then be elided, as it is not in double quotes.
14.4 Command Substitution
A command enclosed in parentheses preceded by a dollar sign, like
‘$(
...)
’, or quoted with grave accents, like ‘‘
...‘
’, is
replaced with its standard output, with any trailing newlines deleted.
If the substitution is not enclosed in double quotes, the output is
broken into words using the IFS
parameter.
The substitution ‘$(cat
foo``)
’ may be replaced by the faster
‘$(<``foo``)
’. In this case foo
undergoes single word shell
expansions (parameter expansion, command substitution and
arithmetic expansion), but not filename generation.
If the option GLOB_SUBST
is set, the result of any unquoted command
substitution, including the special form just mentioned, is eligible for
filename generation.
14.5 Arithmetic Expansion
A string of the form ‘$[``exp``]
’ or ‘$((``exp``))
’ is substituted
with the value of the arithmetic expression exp
. exp
is subjected to
parameter expansion, command substitution and arithmetic expansion
before it is evaluated. See Arithmetic
Evaluation.
14.6 Brace Expansion
A string of the form ‘foo``{``xx``,``yy``,``zz``}``bar
’ is expanded to
the individual words ‘fooxxbar
’, ‘fooyybar
’ and ‘foozzbar
’.
Left-to-right order is preserved. This construct may be nested. Commas
may be quoted in order to include them literally in a word.
An expression of the form ‘{``n1``..``n2``}
’, where n1
and n2
are
integers, is expanded to every number between n1
and n2
inclusive.
If either number begins with a zero, all the resulting numbers will be
padded with leading zeroes to that minimum width, but for negative
numbers the -
character is also included in the width. If the numbers
are in decreasing order the resulting sequence will also be in
decreasing order.
An expression of the form ‘{``n1``..``n2``..``n3``}
’, where n1
,
n2
, and n3
are integers, is expanded as above, but only every n3
th
number starting from n1
is output. If n3
is negative the numbers are
output in reverse order, this is slightly different from simply swapping
n1
and n2
in the case that the step n3
doesn’t evenly divide the
range. Zero padding can be specified in any of the three numbers,
specifying it in the third can be useful to pad for example
‘{-99..100..01}
’ which is not possible to specify by putting a 0 on
either of the first two numbers (i.e. pad to two characters).
An expression of the form ‘{``c1``..``c2``}
’, where c1
and c2
are
single characters (which may be multibyte characters), is expanded to
every character in the range from c1
to c2
in whatever character
sequence is used internally. For characters with code points below 128
this is US ASCII (this is the only case most users will need). If any
intervening character is not If the character sequence is reversed, the
output is in reverse order, e.g. ‘{d..a}
’ is substituted as ‘d c b a
’.
If a brace expression matches none of the above forms, it is left
unchanged, unless the option BRACE_CCL
(an abbreviation for ‘brace
character class’) is set.
In that case, it is
expanded to a list of the individual characters between the braces
sorted into the order of the characters in the ASCII character set
(multibyte characters are not currently handled). The syntax is similar
to a [
...]
expression in filename generation: ‘-
’ is treated
specially to denote a range of characters, but ‘^
’ or ‘!
’ as the
first character is treated normally. For example, ‘{abcdef0-9}
’
expands to 16 words 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f
.
Note that brace expansion is not part of filename generation (globbing);
an expression such as */{foo,bar}
is split into two separate words
*/foo
and */bar
before filename generation takes place. In
particular, note that this is liable to produce a ‘no match’ error if
either of the two expressions does not match; this is to be contrasted
with */(foo|bar)
, which is treated as a single pattern but otherwise
has similar effects.
To combine brace expansion with array expansion, see the ${^``spec``}
form described in Parameter Expansion above.
14.7 Filename Expansion
Each word is checked to see if it begins with an unquoted ‘~
’. If it
does, then the word up to a ‘/
’, or the end of the word if there is no
‘/
’, is checked to see if it can be substituted in one of the ways
described here. If so, then the ‘~
’ and the checked portion are
replaced with the appropriate substitute value.
A ‘~
’ by itself is replaced by the value of $HOME
. A ‘~
’ followed
by a ‘+
’ or a ‘-
’ is replaced by current or previous working
directory, respectively.
A ‘~
’ followed by a number is replaced by the directory at that
position in the directory stack. ‘~0
’ is equivalent to ‘~+
’, and
‘~1
’ is the top of the stack. ‘~+
’ followed by a number is
replaced by the directory at that position in the directory stack.
‘~+0
’ is equivalent to ‘~+
’, and ‘~+1
’ is the top of the stack.
‘~-
’ followed by a number is replaced by the directory that many
positions from the bottom of the stack. ‘~-0
’ is the bottom of the
stack. The
PUSHD_MINUS
option exchanges the effects of ‘~+
’ and ‘~-
’ where
they are followed by a number.
14.7.1 Dynamic named directories
If the function zsh_directory_name
exists, or the shell variable
zsh_directory_name_functions
exists and contains an array of function
names, then the functions are used to implement dynamic directory
naming. The functions are tried in order until one returns status zero,
so it is important that functions test whether they can handle the case
in question and return an appropriate status.
A ‘~
’ followed by a string namstr
in unquoted square brackets is
treated specially as a dynamic directory name. Note that the first
unquoted closing square bracket always terminates namstr
. The shell
function is passed two arguments: the string n
(for name) and
namstr
. It should either set the array reply
to a single element
which is the directory corresponding to the name and return status zero
(executing an assignment as the last statement is usually sufficient),
or it should return status non-zero. In the former case the element of
reply is used as the directory; in the latter case the substitution is
deemed to have failed. If all functions fail and the option NOMATCH
is
set, an error results.
The functions defined as above are also used to see if a directory can
be turned into a name, for example when printing the directory stack or
when expanding %~
in prompts. In this case each function is passed two
arguments: the string d
(for directory) and the candidate for dynamic
naming. The function should either return non-zero status, if the
directory cannot be named by the function, or it should set the array
reply to consist of two elements: the first is the dynamic name for the
directory (as would appear within ‘~[``...``]
’), and the second is the
prefix length of the directory to be replaced. For example, if the trial
directory is /home/myname/src/zsh
and the dynamic name for
/home/myname/src
(which has 16 characters) is s
, then the function
sets
reply=(s 16)
The directory name so returned is compared with possible static names for parts of the directory path, as described below; it is used if the prefix length matched (16 in the example) is longer than that matched by any static name.
It is not a requirement that a function implements both n
and d
calls; for example, it might be appropriate for certain dynamic forms of
expansion not to be contracted to names. In that case any call with the
first argument d
should cause a non-zero status to be returned.
The completion system calls ‘zsh_directory_name c
’ followed by
equivalent calls to elements of the array
zsh_directory_name_functions
, if it exists, in order to complete
dynamic names for directories. The code for this should be as for any
other completion function as described in Completion
System.
As a working example, here is a function that expands any dynamic names
beginning with the string p:
to directories below
/home/pws/perforce
. In this simple case a static name for the
directory would be just as effective.
zsh_directory_name() {
emulate -L zsh
setopt extendedglob
local -a match mbegin mend
if [[ $1 = d ]]; then
# turn the directory into a name
if [[ $2 = (#b)(/home/pws/perforce/)([^/]##)* ]]; then
typeset -ga reply
reply=(p:$match[2] $(( ${#match[1]} + ${#match[2]} )) )
else
return 1
fi
elif [[ $1 = n ]]; then
# turn the name into a directory
[[ $2 != (#b)p:(?*) ]] && return 1
typeset -ga reply
reply=(/home/pws/perforce/$match[1])
elif [[ $1 = c ]]; then
# complete names
local expl
local -a dirs
dirs=(/home/pws/perforce/*(/:t))
dirs=(p:${^dirs})
_wanted dynamic-dirs expl 'dynamic directory' compadd -S\] -a dirs
return
else
return 1
fi
return 0
}
14.7.2 Static named directories
A ‘~
’ followed by anything not already covered consisting of any
number of alphanumeric characters or underscore (‘_
’), hyphen (‘-
’),
or dot (‘.
’) is looked up as a named directory, and replaced by the
value of that named directory if found. Named directories are typically
home directories for users on the system. They may also be defined if
the text after the ‘~
’ is the name of a string shell parameter whose
value begins with a ‘/
’. Note that trailing slashes will be removed
from the path to the directory (though the original parameter is not
modified).
It is also possible to define directory names using the -d
option to
the hash
builtin.
When the shell prints a path (e.g. when expanding %~
in prompts or
when printing the directory stack), the path is checked to see if it has
a named directory as its prefix. If so, then the prefix portion is
replaced with a ‘~
’ followed by the name of the directory. The shorter
of the two ways of referring to the directory is used, i.e. either the
directory name or the full path; the name is used if they are the same
length. The parameters $PWD
and $OLDPWD
are never abbreviated in
this fashion.
14.7.3 ‘=’ expansion
If a word begins with an unquoted ‘=
’ and the EQUALS
option is set,
the remainder of the word is taken as the name of a command. If a
command exists by that name, the word is replaced by the full pathname
of the command.
14.7.4 Notes
Filename expansion is performed on the right hand side of a parameter
assignment, including those appearing after commands of the typeset
family. In this case, the right hand side will be treated as a
colon-separated list in the manner of the PATH
parameter, so that a
‘~
’ or an ‘=
’ following a ‘:
’ is eligible for expansion. All
such behaviour can be disabled by quoting the ‘~
’, the ‘=
’, or the
whole expression (but not simply the colon); the EQUALS
option is also
respected.
If the option MAGIC_EQUAL_SUBST
is set, any unquoted shell argument in
the form ‘identifier``=``expression
’ becomes eligible for file
expansion as described in the previous paragraph. Quoting the first
‘=
’ also inhibits this.
14.8 Filename Generation
If a word contains an unquoted instance of one of the characters ‘*
’,
‘(
’, ‘|
’, ‘<
’, ‘[
’, or ‘?
’, it is regarded as a pattern for
filename generation, unless the GLOB
option is unset.
If the EXTENDED_GLOB
option
is set, the ‘^
’
and ‘#
’ characters also denote a pattern; otherwise they are not
treated specially by the shell.
The word is replaced with a list of sorted filenames that match the
pattern. If no matching pattern is found, the shell gives an error
message, unless the NULL_GLOB
option is set,
in which case the
word is deleted; or unless the NOMATCH
option is unset, in which case
the word is left unchanged.
In filename generation, the character ‘/
’ must be matched explicitly;
also, a ‘.
’ must be matched explicitly at the beginning of a pattern
or after a ‘/
’, unless the GLOB_DOTS
option is set.
No filename
generation pattern matches the files ‘.
’ or ‘..
’. In other instances
of pattern matching, the ‘/
’ and ‘.
’ are not treated specially.
14.8.1 Glob Operators
-
*
Matches any string, including the null string. -
?
Matches any character. -
[
...]
Matches any of the enclosed characters. Ranges of characters can be specified by separating two characters by a ‘-
’. A ‘-
’ or ‘]
’ may be matched by including it as the first character in the list. There are also several named classes of characters, in the form ‘[:``name``:]
’ with the following meanings. The first set use the macros provided by the operating system to test for the given character combinations, including any modifications due to local language settings, see man page ctype(3):-
[:alnum:]
The character is alphanumeric -
[:alpha:]
The character is alphabetic -
[:ascii:]
The character is 7-bit, i.e. is a single-byte character without the top bit set. -
[:blank:]
The character is a blank character -
[:cntrl:]
The character is a control character -
[:digit:]
The character is a decimal digit -
[:graph:]
[:lower:]
The character is a lowercase letter -
[:print:]
[:punct:]
[:space:]
The character is whitespace -
[:upper:]
The character is an uppercase letter -
[:xdigit:]
The character is a hexadecimal digit
Another set of named classes is handled internally by the shell and is not sensitive to the locale:
-
[:IDENT:]
The character is allowed to form part of a shell identifier, such as a parameter name -
[:IFS:]
The character is used as an input field separator, i.e. is contained in theIFS
parameter -
[:IFSSPACE:]
The character is an IFS white space character; see the documentation forIFS
in Parameters Used By The Shell. -
[:INCOMPLETE:]
Matches a byte that starts an incomplete multibyte character. Note that there may be a sequence of more than one bytes that taken together form the prefix of a multibyte character. To test for a potentially incomplete byte sequence, use the pattern ‘[[:INCOMPLETE:]]*
’. This will never match a sequence starting with a valid multibyte character. -
[:INVALID:]
Matches a byte that does not start a valid multibyte character. Note this may be a continuation byte of an incomplete multibyte character as any part of a multibyte string consisting of invalid and incomplete multibyte characters is treated as single bytes. -
[:WORD:]
The character is treated as part of a word; this test is sensitive to the value of theWORDCHARS
parameter
Note that the square brackets are additional to those enclosing the whole set of characters, so to test for a single alphanumeric character you need ‘
[[:alnum:]]
’. Named character sets can be used alongside other types, e.g. ‘[[:alpha:]0-9]
’. -
-
[^
...]
[!
...]
Like[
...]
, except that it matches any character which is not in the given set. -
<
[x
]-
[y
]>
Matches any number in the rangex
toy
, inclusive. Either of the numbers may be omitted to make the range open-ended; hence ‘<->
’ matches any number. To match individual digits, the[
...]
form is more efficient.Be careful when using other wildcards adjacent to patterns of this form; for example,
<0-9>*
will actually match any number whatsoever at the start of the string, since the ‘<0-9>
’ will match the first digit, and the ‘*
’ will match any others. This is a trap for the unwary, but is match always succeeds. Expressions such as ‘<0-9>[^[:digit:]]*
’ can be used instead. -
(
...)
Matches the enclosed pattern. This is used for grouping. If theKSH_GLOB
option is set, then a ‘@
’, ‘*
’, ‘+
’, ‘?
’ or ‘!
’ immediately preceding the ‘(
’ is treated specially, as detailed below. The optionSH_GLOB
prevents bare parentheses from being used in this way, though theKSH_GLOB
option is still available.Note that grouping cannot extend over multiple directories: it is an error to have a ‘
/
’ within a group (this only applies for patterns used in filename generation). There is one exception: a group of the form(``pat``/)#
appearing as a complete path segment can match a sequence of directories. For example,foo/(a*/)#bar
matchesfoo/bar
,foo/any/bar
,foo/any/anyother/bar
, and so on. -
x``|``y
Matches eitherx
ory
. This operator has lower precedence than any other. The ‘|
’ character must be within parentheses, to avoid interpretation as a pipeline. The alternatives are tried in order from left to right. -
^``x
(RequiresEXTENDED_GLOB
to be set.) Matches anything except the patternx
. This has a higher precedence than ‘/
’, so ‘^foo/bar
’ will search directories in ‘.
’ except ‘./foo
’ for a file named ‘bar
’. -
x``~``y
(RequiresEXTENDED_GLOB
to be set.) Match anything that matches the patternx
but does not matchy
. This has lower precedence than any operator except ‘|
’, so ‘*/*~foo/bar
’ will search for all files in all directories in ‘.
’ and then exclude ‘foo/bar
’ if there was such a match. Multiple patterns can be excluded by ‘foo``~``bar``~``baz
’. In the exclusion pattern (y
), ‘/
’ and ‘.
’ are not treated specially the way they usually are in globbing. -
x``#
(RequiresEXTENDED_GLOB
to be set.) Matches zero or more occurrences of the patternx
. This operator has high precedence; ‘12#
’ is equivalent to ‘1(2#)
’, rather than ‘(12)#
’. It is an error for an unquoted ‘#
’ to follow something which cannot be repeated; this includes an empty string, a pattern already followed by ‘##
’, or parentheses when part of aKSH_GLOB
pattern (for example, ‘!(``foo``)#
’ is invalid and must be replaced by ‘*(!(``foo``))
’). -
x``##
(RequiresEXTENDED_GLOB
to be set.) Matches one or more occurrences of the patternx
. This operator has high precedence; ‘12##
’ is equivalent to ‘1(2##)
’, rather than ‘(12)##
’. No more than two active ‘#
’ characters may appear together. (Note the potential clash with glob qualifiers in the form ‘1(2##)
’ which should therefore be avoided.)
14.8.2 ksh-like Glob Operators
If the KSH_GLOB
option is set, the effects of parentheses can be
modified by a preceding ‘@
’, ‘*
’, ‘+
’, ‘?
’ or ‘!
’. This
character need not be unquoted to have special effects, but the ‘(
’
must be.
-
@(
...)
Match the pattern in the parentheses. (Like ‘(
...)
’.) -
*(
...)
Match any number of occurrences. (Like ‘(
...)#
’, except that recursive directory searching is not supported.) -
+(
...)
Match at least one occurrence. (Like ‘(
...)##
’, except that recursive directory searching is not supported.) -
?(
...)
Match zero or one occurrence. (Like ‘(|
...)
’.) -
!(
...)
Match anything but the expression in parentheses. (Like ‘(^(
...))
’.)
14.8.3 Precedence
The precedence of the operators given above is (highest) ‘^
’, ‘/
’,
‘~
’, ‘|
’ (lowest); the remaining operators are simply treated from
left to right as part of a string, with ‘#
’ and ‘##
’ applying to the
shortest possible preceding unit (i.e. a character, ‘?
’, ‘[
...]
’,
‘<
...>
’, or a parenthesised expression). As mentioned above, a
‘/
’ used as a directory separator may not appear inside parentheses,
while a ‘|
’ must do so; in patterns used in other contexts than
filename generation (for example, in case
statements and tests within
‘[[
...]]
’), a ‘/
’ is not special; and ‘/
’ is also not special
after a ‘~
’ appearing outside parentheses in a filename pattern.
14.8.4 Globbing Flags
There are various flags which affect any text to their right up to the
end of the enclosing group or to the end of the pattern; they require
the EXTENDED_GLOB
option. All take the form (#``X``)
where X
may
have one of the following forms:
-
i
Case insensitive: upper or lower case characters in the pattern match upper or lower case characters. -
l
Lower case characters in the pattern match upper or lower case characters; upper case characters in the pattern still only match upper case characters. -
I
Case sensitive: locally negates the effect ofi
orl
from that point on. -
b
Activate backreferences for parenthesised groups in the pattern; this does not work in filename generation. When a pattern with a set of active parentheses is matched, the strings matched by the groups are stored in the array$match
, the indices of the beginning of the matched parentheses in the array$mbegin
, and the indices of the end in the array$mend
, with the first element of each array corresponding to the first parenthesised group, and so on. These arrays are not otherwise special to the shell. The indices use the same convention as does parameter substitution, so that elements of$mend
and$mbegin
may be used in subscripts; theKSH_ARRAYS
option is respected. Sets of globbing flags are not considered parenthesised groups; only the first nine active parentheses can be referenced.For example,
foo="a_string_with_a_message" if [[ $foo = (a|an)_(#b)(*) ]]; then print ${foo[$mbegin[1],$mend[1]]} fi
prints ‘
string_with_a_message
’. Note that the first set of parentheses is before the(#b)
and does not create a backreference.Backreferences work with all forms of pattern matching other than filename generation, but note that when performing matches on an entire array, such as
${``array``#``pattern``}
, or a global substitution, such as${``param``//``pat``/``repl``}
, only the data for the last match remains available. In the case of global replacements this may still be useful. See the example for them
flag below.The numbering of backreferences strictly follows the order of the opening parentheses from left to right in the pattern string, although sets of parentheses may be nested. There are special rules for parentheses followed by ‘
#
’ or ‘##
’. Only the last match of the parenthesis is remembered: for example, in ‘[[ abab = (#b)([ab])# ]]
’, only the final ‘b
’ is stored inmatch[1]
. Thus extra parentheses may be necessary to match the complete segment: for example, use ‘X((ab|cd)#)Y
’ to match a whole string of either ‘ab
’ or ‘cd
’ between ‘X
’ and ‘Y
’, using the value of$match[1]
rather than$match[2]
.If the match fails none of the parameters is altered, so in some cases it may be necessary to initialise them beforehand. If some of the backreferences fail to match — which happens if they are in an alternate branch which fails to match, or if they are followed by
#
and matched zero times — then the matched string is set to the empty string, and the start and end indices are set to -1.Pattern matching with backreferences is slightly slower than without.
-
B
Deactivate backreferences, negating the effect of theb
flag from that point on. -
c``N``,``M
The flag(#c``N``,``M``)
can be used anywhere that the#
or##
operators can be used except in the expressions ‘(*/)#
’ and ‘(*/)##
’ in filename generation, where ‘/
’ has special meaning; it cannot be combined with other globbing flags and a bad pattern error occurs if it is misplaced. It is equivalent to the form{``N``,``M``}
in regular expressions. The previous character or group is required to match betweenN
andM
times, inclusive. The form(#c``N``)
requires exactlyN
matches;(#c,``M``)
is equivalent to specifyingN
as 0;(#c``N``,)
specifies that there is no maximum limit on the number of matches. -
m
Set references to the match data for the entire string matched; this is similar to backreferencing and does not work in filename generation. The flag must be in effect at the end of the pattern, i.e. not local to a group. The parameters$MATCH
,$MBEGIN
and$MEND
will be set to the string matched and to the indices of the beginning and end of the string, respectively. This is most useful in parameter substitutions, as otherwise the string matched is obvious.For example,
arr=(veldt jynx grimps waqf zho buck) print ${arr//(#m)[aeiou]/${(U)MATCH}}
forces all the matches (i.e. all vowels) into uppercase, printing ‘
vEldt jynx grImps wAqf zhO bUck
’.Unlike backreferences, there is no speed penalty for using match references, other than the extra substitutions required for the replacement strings in cases such as the example shown.
-
M
Deactivate them
flag, hence no references to match data will be created. -
a``num
Approximate matching:num
errors are allowed in the string matched by the pattern. The rules for this are described in the next subsection. -
s
,e
Unlike the other flags, these have only a local effect, and each must appear on its own: ‘(#s)
’ and ‘(#e)
’ are the only valid forms. The ‘(#s)
’ flag succeeds only at the start of the test string, and the ‘(#e)
’ flag succeeds only at the end of the test string; they correspond to ‘^
’ and ‘$
’ in standard regular expressions. They are useful for matching path segments in patterns other than those in filename generation (where path segments are in any case treated separately). For example, ‘*((#s)|/)test((#e)|/)*
’ matches a path segment ‘test
’ in any of the following strings:test
,test/at/start
,at/end/test
,in/test/middle
.Another use is in parameter substitution; for example ‘
${array/(#s)A*Z(#e)}
’ will remove only elements of an array which match the complete pattern ‘A*Z
’. There are other ways of performing many operations of this type, however the combination of the substitution operations ‘/
’ and ‘//
’ with the ‘(#s)
’ and ‘(#e)
’ flags provides a single simple and memorable method.Note that assertions of the form ‘
(^(#s))
’ also work, i.e. match anywhere except at the start of the string, although this actually means ‘anything except a zero-length portion at the start of the string’; you need to use ‘(""~(#s))
’ to match a zero-length portion of the string not at the start. -
q
A ‘q
’ and everything up to the closing parenthesis of the globbing flags are ignored by the pattern matching code. This is intended to support the use of glob qualifiers, see below. The result is that the pattern ‘(#b)(*).c(#q.)
’ can be used both for globbing and for matching against a string. In the former case, the ‘(#q.)
’ will be treated as a glob qualifier and the ‘(#b)
’ will not be useful, while in the latter case the ‘(#b)
’ is useful for backreferences and the ‘(#q.)
’ will be ignored. Note that colon modifiers in the glob qualifiers are also not applied in ordinary pattern matching. -
u
Respect the current locale in determining the presence of multibyte characters in a pattern, provided the shell was compiled withMULTIBYTE_SUPPORT
. This overrides theMULTIBYTE
option; the default behaviour is taken from the option. CompareU
. (Mnemonic: typically multibyte characters are from Unicode in the UTF-8 encoding, although any extension of ASCII supported by the system library may be used.) -
U
All characters are considered to be a single byte long. The opposite ofu
. This overrides theMULTIBYTE
option.
For example, the test string fooxx
can be matched by the pattern
(#i``)FOOXX
, but not by (#l``)FOOXX
, (#i``)FOO``(#I``)XX
or
((#i``)FOOX``)X
. The string (#ia2``)readme
specifies
case-insensitive matching of readme
with up to two errors.
When using the ksh syntax for grouping both KSH_GLOB
and
EXTENDED_GLOB
must be set and the left parenthesis should be preceded
by @
. Note also that the flags do not affect letters inside [
...]
groups, in other words (#i``)[a-z]
still matches only lowercase
letters. Finally, note that when examining whole paths
case-insensitively every directory must be searched for all files which
match, so that a pattern of the form (#i``)/foo/bar/...
is potentially
slow.
14.8.5 Approximate Matching
When matching approximately, the shell keeps a count of the errors
found, which cannot exceed the number specified in the (#a``num``)
flags. Four types of error are recognised:
-
1.
Different characters, as infooxbar
andfooybar
. -
2.
Transposition of characters, as inbanana
andabnana
. -
3.
A character missing in the target string, as with the patternroad
and target stringrod
. -
4.
An extra character appearing in the target string, as withstove
andstrove
.
Thus, the pattern (#a3``)abcd
matches dcba
, with the errors
occurring by using the first rule twice and the second once, grouping
the string as [d][cb][a]
and [a][bc][d]
.
Non-literal parts of the pattern must match exactly, including
characters in character ranges: hence (#a1``)???
matches strings of
length four, by applying rule 4 to an empty part of the pattern, but not
strings of length two, since all the ?
must match. Other characters
which must match exactly are initial dots in filenames (unless the
GLOB_DOTS
option is set), and all slashes in filenames, so that a/bc
is two errors from ab/c
(the slash cannot be transposed with another
character). Similarly, errors are counted separately for non-contiguous
strings in the pattern, so that (ab|cd``)ef
is two errors from aebf
.
When using exclusion via the ~
operator, approximate matching is
treated entirely separately for the excluded part and must be activated
separately. Thus, (#a1``)README~READ_ME
matches READ.ME
but not
READ_ME
, as the trailing READ_ME
is matched without approximation.
However, (#a1``)README~(#a1``)READ_ME
does not match any pattern of
the form READ``?``ME
as all such forms are now excluded.
Apart from exclusions, there is only one overall error count; however,
the maximum errors allowed may be altered locally, and this can be
delimited by grouping. For example, (#a1``)cat``((#a0``)dog``)fox
allows one error in total, which may not occur in the dog
section, and
the pattern (#a1``)cat``(#a0``)dog``(#a1``)fox
is equivalent. Note
that the point at which an error is first found is the crucial one for
establishing whether to use approximation; for example,
(#a1)abc(#a0)xyz
will not match abcdxyz
, because the error occurs at
the ‘x
’, where approximation is turned off.
Entire path segments may be matched approximately, so that
‘(#a1)/foo/d/is/available/at/the/bar
’ allows one error in any path
segment. This is much less efficient than without the (#a1)
, however,
since every directory in the path must be scanned for a possible
approximate match. It is best to place the (#a1)
after any path
segments which are known to be correct.
14.8.6 Recursive Globbing
A pathname component of the form ‘(``foo``/)#
’ matches a path
consisting of zero or more directories matching the pattern foo
.
As a shorthand, ‘**/
’ is equivalent to ‘(*/)#
’; note that this
therefore matches files in the current directory as well as
subdirectories. Thus:
ls -ld -- (*/)#bar
or
ls -ld -- **/bar
does a recursive directory search for files named ‘bar
’ (potentially
including the file ‘bar
’ in the current directory). This form does not
follow symbolic links; the alternative form ‘***/
’ does, but is
otherwise identical. Neither of these can be combined with other forms
of globbing within the same path segment; in that case, the ‘*
’
operators revert to their usual effect.
Even shorter forms are available when the option GLOB_STAR_SHORT
is
set. In that case if no /
immediately follows a **
or ***
they are
treated as if both a /
plus a further *
are present. Hence:
setopt GLOBSTARSHORT
ls -ld -- **.c
is equivalent to
ls -ld -- **/*.c
14.8.7 Glob Qualifiers
Patterns used for filename generation may end in a list of qualifiers enclosed in parentheses. The qualifiers specify which filenames that otherwise match the given pattern will be inserted in the argument list.
If the option BARE_GLOB_QUAL
is set, then a trailing set of
parentheses containing no ‘|
’ or ‘(
’ characters (or ‘~
’ if it is
special) is taken as a set of glob qualifiers. A glob subexpression that
would normally be taken as glob qualifiers, for example ‘(^x)
’, can be
forced to be treated as part of the glob pattern by doubling the
parentheses, in this case producing ‘((^x))
’.
If the option EXTENDED_GLOB
is set, a different syntax for glob
qualifiers is available, namely ‘(#q``x``)
’ where x
is any of the
same glob qualifiers used in the other format. The qualifiers must still
appear at the end of the pattern. However, with this syntax multiple
glob qualifiers may be chained together. They are treated as a logical
AND of the individual sets of flags. Also, as the syntax is unambiguous,
the expression will be treated as glob qualifiers just as long any
parentheses contained within it are balanced; appearance of ‘|
’, ‘(
’
or ‘~
’ does not negate the effect. Note that qualifiers will be
recognised in this form even if a bare glob qualifier exists at the end
of files if both options are set; however, mixed syntax should probably
be avoided for the sake of clarity. Note that within conditions using
the ‘[[
’ form the presence of a parenthesised expression (#q``...``)
at the end of a string indicates that globbing should be performed; the
expression may include glob qualifiers, but it is also valid if it is
simply (#q)
. This does not apply to the right hand side of pattern
match operators as the syntax already has special significance.
A qualifier may be any one of the following:
-
/
directories -
F
‘full’ (i.e. non-empty) directories. Note that the opposite sense(^F``)
expands to empty directories and all non-directories. Use(/^F``)
for empty directories. -
.
plain files -
@
symbolic links -
=
sockets -
p
named pipes (FIFOs) -
*
%
device files (character or block special) -
%b
block special files -
%c
character special files -
r
owner-readable files (0400) -
w
x
A
group-readable files (0040) -
I
E
R
world-readable files (0004) -
W
X
s
setuid files (04000) -
S
setgid files (02000) -
t
files with the sticky bit (01000) -
f``spec
files with access rights matchingspec
. Thisspec
may be a octal number optionally preceded by a ‘=
’, a ‘+
’, or a ‘-
’. If none of these characters is given, the behavior is the same as for ‘=
’. The octal number describes the mode bits to be expected, if combined with a ‘=
’, the value given must match the file-modes exactly, with a ‘+
’, at least the bits in the given number must be set in the file-modes, and with a ‘-
’, the bits in the number must not be set. Giving a ‘?
’ instead of a octal digit anywhere in the number ensures that the corresponding bits in the file-modes are not checked, this is only useful in combination with ‘=
’.If the qualifier ‘
f
’ is followed by any other character anything up to the next matching character (‘[
’, ‘{
’, and ‘<
’ match ‘]
’, ‘}
’, and ‘>
’ respectively, any other character matches itself) is taken as a list of comma-separatedsub-spec
s. Eachsub-spec
may be either an octal number as described above or a list of any of the characters ‘u
’, ‘g
’, ‘o
’, and ‘a
’, followed by a ‘=
’, a ‘+
’, or a ‘-
’, followed by a list of any of the characters ‘r
’, ‘w
’, ‘x
’, ‘s
’, and ‘t
’, or an octal digit. The first list of characters specify which access rights are to be checked. If a ‘u
’ is given, those for the owner of the file are used, if a ‘g
’ is given, those of the group are checked, a ‘o
’ means to test those of other users, and the ‘a
’ says to test all three groups. The ‘=
’, ‘+
’, and ‘-
’ again says how the modes are to be checked and have the same meaning as described for the first form above. The second list of characters finally says which access rights are to be expected: ‘r
’ for read access, ‘w
’ for write access, ‘x
’ for the right to execute the file (or to search a directory), ‘s
’ for the setuid and setgid bits, and ‘t
’ for the sticky bit.Thus, ‘
*(f70?)
’ gives the files for which the owner has read, write, and execute permission, and for which other group members have no rights, independent of the permissions for other users. The pattern ‘*(f-100)
’ gives all files for which the owner does not have execute permission, and ‘*(f:gu+w,o-rx:)
’ gives the files for which the owner and the other members of the group have at least write permission, and for which other users don’t have read or execute permission. -
e``string
+``cmd
Thestring
will be executed as shell code. The filename will be included in the list if and only if the code returns a zero status (usually the status of the last command).In the first form, the first character after the ‘
e
’ will be used as a separator and anything up to the next matching separator will be taken as thestring
; ‘[
’, ‘{
’, and ‘<
’ match ‘]
’, ‘}
’, and ‘>
’, respectively, while any other character matches itself. Note that expansions must be quoted in thestring
to prevent them from being expanded before globbing is done.string
is then executed as shell code. The stringglobqual
is appended to the arrayzsh_eval_context
the duration of execution.During the execution of
string
the filename currently being tested is available in the parameterREPLY
; the parameter may be altered to a string to be inserted into the list instead of the original filename. In addition, the parameterreply
may be set to an array or a string, which overrides the value ofREPLY
. If set to an array, the latter is inserted into the command line word by word.For example, suppose a directory contains a single file ‘
lonely
’. Then the expression ‘*(e:’reply=(${REPLY}{1,2})’:)
’ will cause the words ‘lonely1
’ and ‘lonely2
’ to be inserted into the command line. Note the quoting ofstring
.The form
+``cmd
has the same effect, but no delimiters appear aroundcmd
. Instead,cmd
is taken as the longest sequence of characters following the+
that are alphanumeric or underscore. Typicallycmd
will be the name of a shell function that contains the appropriate test. For example,nt() { [[ $REPLY -nt $NTREF ]] } NTREF=reffile ls -ld -- *(+nt)
lists all files in the directory that have been modified more recently than
reffile
. -
d``dev
files on the devicedev
-
l
[-
|+
]ct
files having a link count less thanct
(-
), greater thanct
(+
), or equal toct
-
U
files owned by the effective user ID -
G
files owned by the effective group ID -
u``id
files owned by user IDid
if that is a number. Otherwise,id
specifies a user name: the character after the ‘u
’ will be taken as a separator and the string between it and the next matching separator will be taken as a user name. The starting separators ‘[
’, ‘{
’, and ‘<
’ match the final separators ‘]
’, ‘}
’, and ‘>
’, respectively; any other character matches itself. The selected files are those owned by this user. For example, ‘u:foo:
’ or ‘u[foo]
’ selects files owned by user ‘foo
’. -
g``id
likeu``id
but with group IDs or names -
a
[Mwhms
][-
|+
]n
files accessed exactlyn
days ago. Files accessed within the lastn
days are selected using a negative value forn
(-``n
). Files accessed more thann
days ago are selected by a positiven
value (+``n
). Optional unit specifiers ‘M
’, ‘w
’, ‘h
’, ‘m
’ or ‘s
’ (e.g. ‘ah5
’) cause the check to be performed with months (of 30 days), weeks, hours, minutes or seconds instead of days, respectively. An explicit ‘d
’ for days is also allowed.Any fractional part of the difference between the access time and the current part in the appropriate units is ignored in the comparison. For instance, ‘
echo *(ah-5)
’ would echo files accessed within the last five hours, while ‘echo *(ah+5)
’ would echo files accessed at least six hours ago, as times strictly between five and six hours are treated as five hours. -
m
[Mwhms
][-
|+
]n
like the file access qualifier, except that it uses the file modification time. -
c
[Mwhms
][-
|+
]n
like the file access qualifier, except that it uses the file inode change time. -
L
[+
|-
]n
files less thann
bytes (-
), more thann
bytes (+
), or exactlyn
bytes in length.If this flag is directly followed by a size specifier ‘
k
’ (‘K
’), ‘m
’ (‘M
’), or ‘p
’ (‘P
’) (e.g. ‘Lk-50
’) the check is performed with kilobytes, megabytes, or blocks (of 512 bytes) instead. (On some systems additional specifiers are available for gigabytes, ‘g
’ or ‘G
’, and terabytes, ‘t
’ or ‘T
’.) If a size specifier is used a file is regarded as "exactly" the size if the file size rounded up to the next unit is equal to the test size. Hence ‘*(Lm1)
’ matches files from 1 byte up to 1 Megabyte inclusive. Note also that the set of files "less than" the test size only includes files that would not match the equality test; hence ‘*(Lm-1)
’ only matches files of zero size. -
^
negates all qualifiers following it -
-
toggles between making the qualifiers work on symbolic links (the default) and the files they point to -
M
sets theMARK_DIRS
option for the current pattern -
T
appends a trailing qualifier mark to the filenames, analogous to theLIST_TYPES
option, for the current pattern (overridesM
) -
N
sets theNULL_GLOB
option for the current pattern -
D
sets theGLOB_DOTS
option for the current pattern -
n
sets theNUMERIC_GLOB_SORT
option for the current pattern -
Y``n
enables short-circuit mode: the pattern will expand to at mostn
filenames. If more thann
matches exist, only the firstn
matches in directory traversal order will be considered.Implies
oN
when noo``c
qualifier is used. -
o``c
specifies how the names of the files should be sorted. Ifc
isn
they are sorted by name; if it isL
they are sorted depending on the size (length) of the files; ifl
they are sorted by the number of links; ifa
,m
, orc
they are sorted by the time of the last access, modification, or inode change respectively; ifd
, files in subdirectories appear before those in the current directory at each level of the search — this is best combined with other criteria, for example ‘odon
’ to sort on names for files within the same directory; ifN
, no sorting is performed. Note thata
,m
, andc
compare the age against the current time, hence the first name in the list is the youngest file. Also note that the modifiers^
and-
are used, so ‘*(^-oL)
’ gives a list of all files sorted by file size in descending order, following any symbolic links. UnlessoN
is used, multiple order specifiers may occur to resolve ties.The default sorting is
n
(by name) unless theY
glob qualifier is used, in which case it isN
(unsorted).oe
ando+
are special cases; they are each followed by shell code, delimited as for thee
glob qualifier and the+
glob qualifier respectively (see above). The code is executed for each matched file with the parameterREPLY
set to the name of the file on entry andglobsort
appended tozsh_eval_context
. The code should modify the parameterREPLY
in some fashion. On return, the value of the parameter is used instead of the file name as the string on which to sort. Unlike other sort operators,oe
ando+
may be repeated, but note that the maximum number of sort operators of any kind that may appear in any glob expression is 12. -
O``c
like ‘o
’, but sorts in descending order; i.e. ‘*(^oc)
’ is the same as ‘*(Oc)
’ and ‘*(^Oc)
’ is the same as ‘*(oc)
’; ‘Od
’ puts files in the current directory before those in subdirectories at each level of the search. -
[``beg
[,``end
]]
specifies which of the matched filenames should be included in the returned list. The syntax is the same as for array subscripts.beg
and the optionalend
may be mathematical expressions. As in parameter subscripting they may be negative to make them count from the last match backward. E.g.: ‘*(-OL[1,3])
’ gives a list of the names of the three largest files. -
P``string
Thestring
will be prepended to each glob match as a separate word.string
is delimited in the same way as arguments to thee
glob qualifier described above. The qualifier can be repeated; the words are prepended separately so that the resulting command line contains the words in the same order they were given in the list of glob qualifiers.A typical use for this is to prepend an option before all occurrences of a file name; for example, the pattern ‘
*(P:-f:)
’ produces the command line arguments ‘-f
file1
-f
file2
...’If the modifier
^
is active, thenstring
will be appended instead of prepended. Prepending and appending is done independently so both can be used on the same glob expression; for example by writing ‘*(P:foo:^P:bar:^P:baz:)
’ which produces the command line arguments ‘foo
baz
file1
bar
...’
More than one of these lists can be combined, separated by commas. The
whole list matches if at least one of the sublists matches (they are
‘or’ed, the qualifiers in the sublists are ‘and’ed). Some
qualifiers, however, affect all matches generated, independent of the
sublist in which they are given. These are the qualifiers ‘M
’, ‘T
’,
‘N
’, ‘D
’, ‘n
’, ‘o
’, ‘O
’ and the subscripts given in brackets
(‘[``...``]
’).
If a ‘:
’ appears in a qualifier list, the remainder of the expression
in parenthesis is interpreted as a modifier (see Modifiers
in History Expansion). Each modifier must be
introduced by a separate ‘:
’. Note also that the result after
modification does not have to be an existing file. The name of any
existing file can be followed by a modifier of the form ‘(:``...``)
’
even if no actual filename generation is performed, although note that
the presence of the parentheses causes the entire expression to be
subjected to any global pattern matching options such as NULL_GLOB
.
Thus:
ls -ld -- *(-/)
lists all directories and symbolic links that point to directories, and
ls -ld -- *(-@)
lists all broken symbolic links, and
ls -ld -- *(%W)
ls -ld -- *(W,X)
lists all files in the current directory that are
print -rC1 /tmp/foo*(u0^@:t)
outputs the basename of all root-owned files beginning with the string
‘foo
’ in /tmp
, ignoring symlinks, and
ls -ld -- *.*~(lex|parse).[ch](^D^l1)
lists all files having a link count of one whose names contain a dot
(but not those starting with a dot, since GLOB_DOTS
is explicitly
switched off) except for lex.c
, lex.h
, parse.c
and parse.h
.
print -rC1 b*.pro(#q:s/pro/shmo/)(#q.:s/builtin/shmiltin/)
demonstrates how colon modifiers and other qualifiers may be chained
together. The ordinary qualifier ‘.
’ is applied first, then the colon
modifiers in order from left to right. So if EXTENDED_GLOB
is set and
the base pattern matches the regular file builtin.pro
, the shell will
print ‘shmiltin.shmo
’.
This document was generated on February 15, 2020 using
texi2html 5.0.
Zsh version 5.8, released on February 14, 2020.