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15
docs/dict/directory.md
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docs/dict/directory.md
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# Directory
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In terms of UNIX(r), a directory is a special file which contains a list
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of [hardlinks](/dict/terms/hardlink) to other files. These other files
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also can be directories of course, so it\'s possible to create a
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\"hierarchy of directories\" - the UNIX(r)-typical filesystem structure.
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The structure begins at the special directory `/` (root directory) and
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all other directory entries are **subdirectories** of it.
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## See also
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- [hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink)
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- [file](/dict/terms/file)
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- [special file](/dict/terms/special_file)
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31
docs/dict/end_of_options.md
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docs/dict/end_of_options.md
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# End of Options
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The options of UNIX(r) utilities usually are introduced with a dash
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(`-`) character.
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This is problematic when a non-option argument has to be specified that
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begins with a dash. A common example for this are filenames.
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Many utilities use the convention to specify two consecutive dashes
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(`--`) to signal \"end of options at this point\". Beyond this tag, no
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options are processed anymore, even if an argument begins with a dash.
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Example: You want to list (`ls`) the file with the name `-hello`. With
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common option processing, this could end up in the ls-options `-h`,
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`-e`, `-l` and `-o` and probably in an error message about invalid
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options. You use this to avoid the wrong option processing:
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ls -- -hello
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POSIX(r) specifies that every utility should follow this rule (see ch.
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[12.2 Utility Syntax
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Guidelines](https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799.2013edition/basedefs/V1_chap12.html)),
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except
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- `echo` (historical reasons)
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- `test` (obvious parsing reasons)
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## See also
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- Scripting article, internal:
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[getopts_tutorial](/howto/getopts_tutorial)
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140
docs/dict/exit_status.md
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docs/dict/exit_status.md
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# Exit Status
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- exit code
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- return status
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## Purpose
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The exit status is a numeric value that is returned by a program to the
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calling program or shell. In C programs, this is represented by the
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return value of the `main()` function or the value you give to
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`exit(3)`. The only part of the number that matters are the least
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significant 8 bits, which means there are only values from 0 to 255.
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In the shell, every operation generates an exit status (return status),
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even if no program is called. An example for such an operation is a
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redirection.
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The parameter to the
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- `exit` (exit the shell/script)
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- `return` (return from a function)
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builtin commands serve the purpose of giving the exit status to the
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calling component.
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This - and only this - makes it possible to determinate the success or
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failure of an operation. For scripting, always set exit codes.
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## Values
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The code is a number between 0 and 255, where the part from 126 to 255
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is reserved to be used by the Bash shell directly or for special
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purposes, like reporting a termination by a signal:
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Code Description
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--------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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0 success
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1-255 failure (in general)
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126 the requested command (file) can\'t be executed (but was found)
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127 command (file) not found
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128 according to ABS it\'s used to report an invalid argument to the exit builtin, but I wasn\'t able to verify that in the source code of Bash (see code 255)
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128 + N the shell was terminated by the signal N (also used like this by various other programs)
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255 wrong argument to the exit builtin (see code 128)
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The lower codes 0 to 125 are not reserved and may be used for whatever
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the program likes to report. A value of **0 means successful**
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termination, a value **not 0 means unsuccessful** termination. This
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behavior (== 0, != 0) is also what Bash reacts on in some code flow
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control statements like `if` or `while`.
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## Portability
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Tables of shell behavior involving non-portable side-effects or common
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bugs with exit statuses. Note heirloom doesn\'t support pipeline
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negation (`! pipeline`).
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### Misc
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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test bash\ bash\ zsh 5.0.2\ ksh93\ mksh\ posh\ dash\ busybox\ heirloom\
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4.2.45 (POSIX) (emulate ksh) 93v- 2013-03-18 R44 2013/02/24 0.11 0.5.7.3 1.2.1 050706
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------- --------- --------------- ----------------- ---------------- ------- --------- ---------- -----------
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`` :; : `false` `echo $? >&2` `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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`false; eval; echo $?` 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
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`` x=`false` eval echo \$? `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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`` eval echo \$? <&0`false` `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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`while :; do ! break; done; echo $?` 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 \-
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[discussion](https://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-bash/2010-09/msg00009.html)`false; : | echo $?` 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
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`` (exit 2); for x in "`exit 3`"; do echo $?; done `` 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 0 3
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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### functions
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Measuring side-effects during the function call, during return, and
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transparency of the return builtin.
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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test bash bash\ zsh\ ksh93 mksh posh dash busybox heirloom
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(POSIX) (emulate ksh)
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-------------------------------------------------------- ------ --------- --------------- ------- ------ ------ ------ --------- ----------
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`` f() { echo $?; }; :; f `false` `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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`f() { return; }; false; f; echo $?` 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
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`f() { return $?; }; false; f; echo $?` 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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`f() { ! return; }; f; echo $?` 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 \-
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`f() { ! return; }; false; f; echo $?` 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 \-
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`` f() { return; }; x=`false` f; echo $? `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
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`` f() { return; }; f <&0`false`; echo $? `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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`` f() { x=`false` return; }; f; echo $? `` 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
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`` f() { return <&0`false`; }; f; echo $? `` 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
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`` f() { x=`false` return <&0`false`; }; f; echo $? `` 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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### case..esac
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Statuses measured within the command and after, with matching and
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non-matching patterns.
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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test bash bash\ zsh\ ksh93 mksh posh dash busybox heirloom
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(POSIX) (emulate ksh)
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-------------------------------------------------------------- ------ --------- --------------- ------- ------ ------ ------ --------- ----------
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`(exit 2); case x in x) echo $?;; esac` 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in x) echo $?;; esac `` 3 3 0 3 2 2 0 0 3
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`` (exit 2); case x in `exit 4`x) echo $?;; esac `` 4 4 4 4 2 2 0 0 4
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in `exit 4`x) echo $?;; esac `` 4 4 4 4 2 2 0 0 4
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`(exit 2); case x in x);; esac; echo $?` 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
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`(exit 2); case x in "");; esac; echo $?` 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in x);; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in "");; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
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|
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`` (exit 2); case x in `exit 4`x);; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4
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|
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`` (exit 2); case x in `exit 4`);; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 4
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|
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in `exit 4`);; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 4
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`` (exit 2); case `exit 3`x in `exit 4`x);; esac; echo $? `` 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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24
docs/dict/file.md
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# File
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A file is a pool of data in the [filesystem](/dict/terms/filesystem). On
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userlevel, it\'s referenced using a name, a
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[hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink) to the file.
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If a file is not referenced anymore (number of hardlinks to it drops to
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0) then the space allocated for that file is re-used, unless it\'s still
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used by some process.
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The file-data splits into actual payload (file contents) and some
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metadata like filesize, filemode or timestamps. The metadata is stored
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in the [inode](/dict/terms/inode).
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Strictly spoken, a [hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink) (also called
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\"filename\") points to the [inode](/dict/terms/inode) which organizes a
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file, not to the file itself.
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## See also
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|
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- [filesystem](/dict/terms/filesystem)
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- [filetimes](/dict/terms/filetimes)
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- [hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink)
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- [inode](/dict/terms/inode)
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23
docs/dict/filetimes.md
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docs/dict/filetimes.md
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# File timestamp
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## atime
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This timestamp indicates when a file was last accessed (read). `cat`ing
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a file or executing a shellscript will set it, for example.
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## ctime
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This timestamp is set, whenever the metadata of a file (stored in the
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responsible inode) is set. The metadata includes for example:
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- file name
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- fize size
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- file mode (permissions)
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and some other things. `ctime` will also be updated when a file is
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written to (when `mtime` is updated.
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## mtime
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The mtime is set, whenever a file\'s contents are changed, for example
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by editing a file.
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31
docs/dict/globbing.md
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docs/dict/globbing.md
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# Globbing
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Globbing is the procedure of
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- matching all filenames against a given pattern
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- expanding to all matching filenames
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|
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Unlike MSDOS, where the called program had to interpret the patterns,
|
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the globbing on UNIX(r) is done by the shell, the matched filenames are
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given as parameters to a called command:
|
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|
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$ cat *.txt
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|
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really executes
|
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|
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$ cat 1.txt 3.txt foobar.txt XXX.txt
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|
||||
The term \"glob\" originates back in the UNIX(r) days where an
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executable `glob` (from \"global\") existed which was used to expand
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pattern-matching characters. Later, this functionality was built into
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the shell. There\'s still a library function called `glob()` (POSIX(r)),
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which serves the same purpose.
|
||||
|
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## See also
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|
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- [shell](/dict/terms/shell)
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- [hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink)
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|
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## See also (article)
|
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|
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- [pathname expansion](/syntax/expansion/globs)
|
51
docs/dict/hardlink.md
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51
docs/dict/hardlink.md
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# Hardlink
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Also the article for:
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|
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- filename
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|
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A hardlink associates a *filename* with a [file](/dict/terms/file). That
|
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name is an entry in a directory listing. Of course a file can have more
|
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hardlinks to it (usually the number of hardlinks to a file is limited),
|
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but all hardlinks to a file must reside on the same
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[filesystem](/dict/terms/filesystem) as the file itself!
|
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|
||||
What you usually call a file is just a name for that file, and thus, a
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hardlink.
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|
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The difference between a [symbolic link](/dict/terms/symlink) and a hard
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link is that there is no easy way to differentiate between a \'real\'
|
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file and a hard link, let\'s take a look at the example:
|
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|
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\* create an empty file
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|
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$ touch a
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|
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\* create a hard link \'b\' and sym link \'c\' to empty file
|
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|
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$ ln a b
|
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$ ln -s a c
|
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|
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as you can see file(1) can\'t differentiate between a real file \'a\'
|
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and a hard link \'b\', but it can tell \'c\' is a sym link
|
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|
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$ file *
|
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a: empty
|
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b: empty
|
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c: symbolic link to `a'
|
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|
||||
`ls -i` prints out the inode numbers of files, if two files have the
|
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same inode number AND are on the same file system it means they are
|
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**hardlinked**.
|
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|
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$ ls -i *
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5262 a 5262 b 5263 c
|
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|
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hard links don\'t consume additional space on the filesystem, the space
|
||||
is freed when the last hard link pointing to it is deleted.
|
||||
|
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## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- [file](/dict/terms/file)
|
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- [filesystem](/dict/terms/filesystem)
|
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- [symlink](/dict/terms/symlink)
|
35
docs/dict/interpreter_directive.md
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35
docs/dict/interpreter_directive.md
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# Interpreter Directive
|
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|
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- shebang
|
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|
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The interpreter directive, usually called shebang, is the character
|
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sequence starting with `#!` (hash, exclamation-point) at the beginning
|
||||
of the very first line of an executable text file on unixoid operating
|
||||
systems.
|
||||
|
||||
The program loader of the operating system may use this line to load an
|
||||
interpreter for this file when executed. This makes it a self-executable
|
||||
script.
|
||||
|
||||
A shebang will typically look like
|
||||
|
||||
#!/bin/bash
|
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|
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Since the line starting with `#` is a comment for the shell (and some
|
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other scripting languages), it\'s ignored.
|
||||
|
||||
Regarding the shebang, there are various, differences between operating
|
||||
systems, including:
|
||||
|
||||
- may require a space after `#!` and before the pathname of the
|
||||
interpreter
|
||||
- may be able to take arguments for the interpreter
|
||||
- \...
|
||||
|
||||
POSIX(r) doesn\'t specify the shebang, though in general it\'s commonly
|
||||
supported by operating systems.
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- [#!-magic](http://www.in-ulm.de/~mascheck/various/shebang/) - a nice
|
||||
overview of the differences between various operating systems
|
67
docs/dict/parameter.md
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67
docs/dict/parameter.md
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# Parameter
|
||||
|
||||
Also the article for: [variable]{.underline}, [positional
|
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parameter]{.underline}, [special parameter]{.underline}
|
||||
|
||||
In Bash, a parameter is simply an entity that stores values and can be
|
||||
referenced. Depending on the type, the parameters can be set directly,
|
||||
only indirectly, or only automatically by the shell.
|
||||
|
||||
Bash knows 3 types of parameters:
|
||||
|
||||
- variables
|
||||
- positional parameters
|
||||
- special parameters
|
||||
|
||||
## variables
|
||||
|
||||
A shell variable is a parameter denoted by a *variable name*:
|
||||
|
||||
- containing only alphanumeric characters and underscores
|
||||
- beginning with an alphabetic character or an underscore
|
||||
|
||||
A value can be assigned to a variable, using the variable\'s name and an
|
||||
equal-sign:
|
||||
|
||||
NAME=VALUE
|
||||
|
||||
Once a variable is set, it exists and can only be unset by the `unset`
|
||||
builtin command.
|
||||
|
||||
The nullstring is a valid value:
|
||||
|
||||
NAME=
|
||||
NAME=""
|
||||
|
||||
## positional parameters
|
||||
|
||||
A positional parameter is denoted by a number other than `0` (zero).
|
||||
|
||||
Positional parameters reflect the shell\'s arguments that are not given
|
||||
to the shell itself (in practise, the script arguments, also the
|
||||
function arguments). You can\'t directly assign to the positional
|
||||
parameters, however, [the set builtin command](/commands/builtin/set)
|
||||
can be used to indirectly set them.
|
||||
|
||||
The first to ninth positional parameter is referenced by `$1` to `$9`.
|
||||
All following positional parameters (tenth and above) must be referenced
|
||||
by the number given in curly braces, i.e., `${10}` or `${432}`.
|
||||
|
||||
Unlike popular belief, `$0` is *not a positional parameter*.
|
||||
|
||||
See also the [scripting article about handling positional
|
||||
parameters](/scripting/posparams).
|
||||
|
||||
## special parameters
|
||||
|
||||
There are a bunch of special parameters, which are set by the shell.
|
||||
Direct assignment to them is not possible. These parameter names are
|
||||
formed of one character.
|
||||
|
||||
Please see [shellvars](/syntax/shellvars).
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- Syntax article, internal: [pe](/syntax/pe)
|
||||
- Syntax article, internal: [shellvars](/syntax/shellvars)
|
||||
- Scripting article, internal: [posparams](/scripting/posparams)
|
16
docs/dict/posix.md
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16
docs/dict/posix.md
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|
||||
# POSIX
|
||||
|
||||
POSIX(r) is a family of standards defined by the IEEE to give a minimum
|
||||
API and interface standardization across the variants of UNIX(r)
|
||||
operating systems.
|
||||
|
||||
One part of it is the standardization of minimum functionality and
|
||||
behaviour of the system shell and some utilities (commands).
|
||||
|
||||
- UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the US and other
|
||||
countries.
|
||||
- POSIX is a registered trademark of the IEEE Inc.
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- Dictionary, internal: [shell](/dict/terms/shell)
|
19
docs/dict/shell.md
Normal file
19
docs/dict/shell.md
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@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
# Shell
|
||||
|
||||
On UNIX(r), the shell is the main interaction tool between the
|
||||
user-level and the system. That doesn\'t necessarily mean the user
|
||||
always sits infront of a shell, but it\'s integral part of the system,
|
||||
not only an \"optional commandline interpreter\".
|
||||
|
||||
The main job of a shell is to execute commands as a user requests them.
|
||||
This behaviour alone doesn\'t help much. A shell knits some intelligence
|
||||
and flow control around the possibility to execute commands - it\'s a
|
||||
complete commandline-oriented user-interface (UI).
|
||||
|
||||
FIXME
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
## See also (external)
|
||||
|
||||
- Wikipedia: [UNIX shell](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_shell)
|
19
docs/dict/special_file.md
Normal file
19
docs/dict/special_file.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
# Special file
|
||||
|
||||
Unlike a regular file (a bunch of accessible data organized on a
|
||||
filesystem), it\'s a special filename that points to a ressource or
|
||||
similar:
|
||||
|
||||
- character special files
|
||||
- block special files
|
||||
- named pipes
|
||||
- socket files
|
||||
|
||||
Since a directory also is only a file, you can count it as special file,
|
||||
too.
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- [file](/dict/terms/file)
|
||||
- [filename](/dict/terms/hardlink)
|
||||
- [directory](/dict/terms/directory)
|
15
docs/dict/symlink.md
Normal file
15
docs/dict/symlink.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
# Symlink
|
||||
|
||||
A symlink (symbolic link) is a \"normal\" file, which contains a pointer
|
||||
to another filename. Since it really only points to another **filename**
|
||||
it can
|
||||
|
||||
- reference filenames on other filesystems
|
||||
- reference filenames that don\'t actually exist
|
||||
- save a reference to the name of a directory
|
||||
|
||||
## See also
|
||||
|
||||
- [hardlink](/dict/terms/hardlink)
|
||||
- [filesystem](/dict/terms/filesystem)
|
||||
- [directory](/dict/terms/directory)
|
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user